Buddhism in the contemporary world
Buddhism has in many ways, successfully transferred itself from a religion
existing in predominantly
Asian agricultural cultures to one that has broad worldwide appeal
in a relatively short period of
time. In the same way that all religions must continually face the
issues posed by constant paradigm
shifts within each culture, Buddhism must, if it wishes to consolidate
its influence in the west, respond
to the challenges posed by elements such as secularism, materialism,
and the various political systems
of the west.
There are ways in which Buddhism easily deals with these situations.
One way of addressing the
issue of changing environment is to change the common forms of expression
that are used in
Buddhism. Given Buddhism’s agricultural background, the Scriptures
predominantly use agricultural
and vegetation imagery. For example, Karma is explained as creating
the root or planting seeds what
will ripen as a fruit within a mind-stream. The conditions which result
in the fruition of karma are
likened to the need for rain, sun and appropriate soil in the growth
of a plant. Buddhist doctrines are
now explained by any number of differing images. Some philosophies
are even articulated using
imagery derived from computer programming.
Aside from changing the forms of expression, Buddhist doctrines have
always been open to change
when they have come into conflict with a dominant and opposing world
view. This can be seen in
doctrines such as rebirth, which are unable to be empirically tested
using western methods.
Buddhism will always be prepared to change its underlying ontology.
That is, it will change its own
views about what exists and what is possible.
The Extremes of Buddhism
Possibly the greatest challenge for Buddhism in the modern world is
to negotiate a path that avoids
emphasising either the extreme ‘quietist fallacy’ of a total renouncement
of material and social
concerns, or the ‘social fallacy’ where all activities are calculated
solely at the level of social change.
Quietism can be seen schools such as Theravada Buddhism, with its emphasis
on seeking an
individualised liberation through rigorous personal meditation. Essentially,
you fix yourself first. The
problem with this, is that a persons ability to practice Buddhism is
influenced by their surrounding
material and social factors. You need a particular level of material
well being to survive, sufficient
time available to participate in religious practices, and the political
freedom to do this (you may well
be aware of the problems faced in Tibet under Chinese rule). Failure
to ensure the necessary
material, social and political conditions needed to freely practice
Buddhism will risk the continuation
of Buddhism. This becomes a particular danger when religion and spirituality
are devalued in favour
of the pursuit of happiness and well-being through material and secular
pursuits. Such concerns have
resulted in individual Buddhists throughout history taking up an active
role in the social and political
spheres. The same motivation has also inspired the development of socially
active movements within
Buddhism. However, while some of these movements find inspiration and
support from traditional
Buddhist scriptures, most Buddhist’s view such activities with suspicion
and sometimes disapproval.
For example, the newer popular and politically active Japanese Buddhist
movements are regarded
by many Buddhists as being Buddhist in name only. They tend to be strongly
nationalistic, dogmatic,
missionary, charismatic and paternalistic - all features that are considered
contrary to the spirit of
Buddhism.
In Buddhism it is understood that until we transcend our egos and are
free of negative emotions, any
actions that we take will be contaminated and ill-directed. At best,
the efforts made will be futile; at
worst they are likely to damage our own and others’ real and long-term
welfare. It is considered by
some traditional Buddhists that the evolution of social and political
activism is evidence for the
degeneration of Buddhist practice (dharma).
Buddhism teaches that two of the greatest delusions that we can fall
prey to are the belief that we
know better than others, and the lust for power in the name of doing
what is best for others. Even
well intentioned and seemingly benevolent behaviour is contaminated
by egoism. We cannot know in
what respects our actions are authentic responses to the real needs
of others and how they are
motivated by our needs and desires based on a false conception of who
we are unless we are
enlightened.
If the Buddhist religion is to emphasise either of these alternatives,
it will compromise its vitality and
integrity. A retreat into quietism would effectively isolate Buddhism,
inevitably making it irrelevant
and inaccessible to all but those few who can renounce worldly commitments
for a life of private
contemplation. Conversely, a period of political and social activism
would slowly erode the spiritual
essence of Buddhism, leaving only an empty, secular shell.
Engaged Buddhism
The resolution of the historical tendency to go from this one extreme
to another is the articulation of a
middle path, which we will call ‘engaged Buddhism.’ Most of the work
in the development and
modelling of this contemporary middle path comes from Mahayana Buddhists
such as the Dalai
Lama of Tibet, and various Western Zen masters. In many ways, their
solution is simply a further
development of the Mahayanan concept of the Bodhisattva; the awakened
being who works
unceasingly and without discrimination for the material and spiritual
welfare of others.
We can identify five major principles within ‘engaged Buddhism’. Firstly,
engaged Buddhism finds its
foundation in the radical transformation of one’s own personality through
rigorous meditation on
egolessness. Personal transformation is understood as the source of
social change, as it is believed
that one cannot work selflessly and effectively for the public good
while being driven by divisiveness
and self-need. In this context, one of the goals within personal meditation
is to expose the roots of
coerciveness and violence within ourselves that drive division and
conflict.
Flowing out of egolessness is the principle of non-violence (ahimsa).
This rules out warfare and
armed revolution as instruments for social change. While non-violence
has traditionally included not
killing animals, it has come to include the destruction of nature through
deforestation, pollution and
the like.
The third principle is a commitment to religious pluralism and government
support for mass
education. This does not constitute tacit approval of ideology, dogmatism,
fanaticism or any other
form of closed minded conviction, since these fuel divisiveness and
conflict. This pluralism recognises
the personal, but not the universal, validity of religious traditions.
To quote the Buddhist emperor
Ashoka (from around the third century BC) ‘the faiths of others all
deserve to be honoured for one
reason or another. By honouring them, one exalts one’s own faith and
at the same time performs a
service to the faith of others. . . the objective of these measures
is the promotion of each man’s
particular faith and the glorification of Dharma.’
The fourth principle is the establishment of caring welfare policies.
This principle is also based on the
model from Ashoka, who established medical services, rest houses and
hospices, introduced
programmes of public works, and appointed public welfare offices’.
The final principle, which is not necessarily shared by all engaged
Buddhists, is the explicit support of
egalitarianism and political decentralisation as the ideal structure
for the practice of Buddhism. The
roots of this can be found in the way that the Buddhism of Gautama
challenged the elitism and social
injustices within Hindu power structures, such as the caste system,
and the way in which early
Buddhism was without any real hierarchal structure or authority. This
principle teaches that gross
social inequality, oppression and exploitation of the weak by the powerful
violates the spirit and
intention of Buddhist practice.
What Buddhism is attempting in this middle path is to find ways in which
it can, on a global level,
promote conditions conducive to the practice of Buddhism. This path
is always relative. What
constitutes a middle path depends firstly on a persons specific situation;
what might constitute a
middle path for one person might not constitute a middle path for a
person in an entirely different
situation, and secondly, developments in communications, technology
and science mean that if the
middle path does not change to reflect the changing times, it will
cease to be a middle path and most
likely end up in quietism.
The Monastic Community
Traditionally, the monastic community is of central importance in Buddhism.
Over time, the sangha
has changed from a community of itinerants moving from village to village,
to an institutionalised
order in which its ordained members were regarded as being separate
to, and on a completely
different level to the common laity, as they were the major Buddhist
functionaries, and the symbol of
the spiritual ideals of Buddhism.
However, this monastic basis is under threat due to the growing global
influences of secularisation,
urbanisation and mass education. This issue is of critical importance
in western technological cultures
which have no currently valued models for a celibate, meditative lifestyle.
The growth in the Western
Buddhism has probably meant that the west will be a major influence
as this issue is faced in
traditional Buddhist cultures. In the West we find lay Buddhist practitioners
who are highly
knowledgeable about Buddhist philosophy and who have quiet times of
Buddhist meditation on a
daily basis. We can see an increased teaching role for lay Buddhists.
A trend we can also observe is
for members of the ordained sangha to act as meditational instructors
to lay Buddhists in small city
centres and to manage and oversee the activities of rural retreats
that are close to urban centres.
The position of women within Buddhism has traditionally been relative
to specific cultures. Within
traditional Buddhism we find both misogynistic attitudes, and strong
powerful female role models.
Western Buddhism places a high degree of importance on the equalisation
of opportunities for
women in Buddhism. Further, the replacement of traditional Buddhist
institutions with more informal,
grass roots communities is beginning to address discrimination against
women in Asian Buddhist
countries. This change can be clearly traced to the influence of the
West.
The contemporary world and Buddhism
Australia, as with many nations around the Pacific Rim, is currently
experiencing a mixing of Asian
and Western cultures. We have found ourselves developing into a post-rationalist
cultural paradigm
that synthesises science and religion, and somehow integrates reason,
emotion and spirituality.
Buddhism has become an important ingredient in the shaping of this
new cultural paradigm.
Science
Buddhism is often regarded as a very scientific religion. It attempts
to avoid the ungrounded
speculation of metaphysical enquiry by being firmly based in verifiable
experience. The Buddha
termed his philosophy as ehipasyika, meaning ‘come see’. This means
that central Buddhist teaching
should be tested by a personal meditative experimentation. Buddhists
have come to think of their
religion as a ‘science of meditation’, compared to a ‘religion of dogma
and faith’. Buddhism was
initially very reluctant to have their claims for the existence of
deep meditational states of
consciousness subjected to empirical research. However, over time,
this research has taken place
and confirmed that accomplished meditators produce characteristic brain
wave patterns that are
unique among meditative religions. This has led to an increased appreciation
of Buddhism and
enhanced its reputation as a nondogmatic and empirically based religion.
Modern Physics
Buddhism prides itself on the way in which it finds common ground with
the description of the natural
world as provided by modern science. They claim that they do not need
to adopt a stance that is
either apologetic or compromises their religious beliefs when confronted
with Western science. In a
sense, this should come as no surprise as Buddhism’s ‘anti theistic’
philosophical stance is in many
aspects parallel to the cultural paradigm that a large proportion of
contemporary science is
conducted in.
Psychology and Psychotherapy
Psychology, psychotherapy and Buddhism are all concerned with understanding
the human mind.
Western professionals quickly embraced many of Buddhism’s insights,
practices, and psychological
theories. This is the main area in which Buddhism is contributing to
Western culture.
Buddhist frameworks for understanding the human psyche have been compared
to Western
psychological traditions. Parallells have been found in many areas,
such as behaviour modification
theories, Freudian depth psychology, cognitive therapy and existential
psychiatry.
Western psychological frameworks are being enriched and enhanced by
Buddhist conceptions of
human development and its understanding of health and well being. A
lot of this is due to the
recognition in Buddhism of higher levels of mental well being than
traditional Western psychology.
Buddhist conceptions of the person are being assimilated into Western
theories and therapeutic
practices.
Some Western therapies are using methods that are directly derived from
Buddhist spiritual
practices. Psychologists use Buddhist breathing techniques to raise
awareness of the self. Creative
imagination or visualisation techniques are used both to facilitate
new ‘self images’ and as an
alternative medical intervention in the treatment of diseases such
as cancer.
Some of the traditional Buddhist methods are being adapted for Western
urban Buddhists. For
example, some of the cognitive methods of mental development that are
based on traditional
Buddhist understandings of rebirth are being reformulated within a
psychological model as opposed
to a religious model of the person.
Buddhism is also making a major contribution in death research and counselling
for the dying and
grieving.
Reductive Modernism
We can define reductive modernism as the ‘inversion of spiritual truths
by reading exclusively secular
meanings into them.’ This is different to secularisation, which is
essentially the rejection of religious
beliefs and values. Rather, reductive modernism continues to use the
ideas and practices that have a
spiritual source but robs them of their spiritual context and milks
them of their spiritual purpose. As a
religion, Buddhism is less prone to the forces of secularisation due
to its non-theistic, empirical and
practical nature, though it is more prone to reductive modernism because
of the vast number and
depth of philosophical and psychological concepts and techniques. A
clear example of this is the use
of Vajrayana’s tantric visualisation methods to enhance competitive
sports performances.
Ministry to Buddhists
Some cultural tips
1. Be friendly and natural. In the same way that Jesus entered our world
and experienced life as a
human, we should endeavour to enter into a friend’s cultural world
before discussing our faith. Be
prepared to join in things that may be foreign to you such as a wedding
festival, but don’t take this
overboard. Some Buddhists are very evangelistic, and may be trying
to convert you.
2. Buddhists do not eat beef. Some will not eat any meat.
3. Flowing out of their understanding of Karma, they have a deep respect
for nature and all living
creatures. They do not like to see trees cut down or animals, or even
insects, killed.
4. They respect their elders.
5. Temples are places where Buddhists can undertake a personal act of
devotion. They have no
understanding of the Christian practice of congregational worship,
but they are often interested in a
special event. So it is acceptable to invite them to a special event
such as a children’s Christmas Eve
service.
Becoming a Christian: stumbling blocks
1. The common perceptions of the Christian lifestyle is one of the major
obstacles. Buddhist teaching
emphasises graciousness, treating creation with respect, and not killing
any living creature. Christians
so often lack a gentle lifestyle such that Buddhists view Christians
as brash, in a hurry, and
disrespectful of creation.
2. Family links among Buddhists are usually very strong. A gracious
spirit excludes confrontational
communication. To become a Christian is seen to be a personal stand
against one’s own family -
something too painful for many to try.
3. Some Buddhists venerate Buddha and some of his disciples, but there
is no official teaching from
Buddha about the existence of a Divine Creator. The word ‘God’ does
not exist in some Buddhist
influenced languages, the closest word being ‘the Lord Buddha’. Therefore,
the Christian revelation
about the existence of one Creator God is difficult for some to understand.
4. Western thought forms and imagery are quite different to the Buddhist
way of thinking and
vocabulary.
Becoming a Christian: common ways
1. Through a sustained friendship in which the caring, self- sacrificing
dimension of the Christian faith
is clearly evident.
2. Through the fear of an evil spirit that a monk can do nothing about.
The person may turn to the
name of Jesus through a friend for release.
3. Hearing about the compelling, sacrificial love of Jesus which is
offered as a free gift and does not
require a cycle of rebirths. Instead Christ affirms our importance
before himself and offers us our
identity forever.
4. Through reading a portion of the New Testament.
Common mistakes when talking to a Buddhist
1. Not being able to explain why we know that there is one God, who
is the God of the whole
universe.
2. Not being respectful about Buddhist teaching. The teaching may seem
complex and hard to
understand, nevertheless it is deeply thoughtful and strongly ethical.
It occupies the mind of monks
for a lifetime and provides a challenge to all to lead a worthy and
pure life. Apart from monks, not
many Buddhists have learnt about the teachings of Buddha, but they
do know that it is a noble
teaching and are proud of it.
3. Traditional Buddhists will not eat any meat. We need to be careful
not to press our culture on
another person who may find it morally repugnant.
4. Not being respectful of the Buddhist culture - converted Buddhists
have indicated that they are
deeply grateful for all they learnt in their culture although they
are now thrilled to know that eternal
salvation is available in Christ.
What can you do?
1 Pray. This is the most important first step. Look to God’s Holy Spirit
to lead you, giving you the
right words at the right moment, and being at work in your friends
heart and mind.
2. Find a point of contact. Friendship is usually an essential context
for witnessing. As the very idea
of God, of a living relationship with God through Christ, and on self
sacrifice is totally outside a
Buddhist’s vocabulary, it is your own personal witness that will be
‘read’ by a Buddhist. You can
open up an opportunity to talk seriously about God by asking whether
your friend understands
Buddha to be a teacher, an example, or the most significant source
of truth. The person may know
something about dharma, in which case there is a bridge here to talking
about Jesus, the dharma who
is personal and has made himself known.
3. Talk about Jesus. Buddhists have a deep respect for Buddha. They
are capable of shifting the
same respect to Christ. This will not happen easily. You need to talk
about Jesus as your closest
friend, as the One whom you respect and love above all else because
of what he has done for you.
Allow your friend time to reflect on this and to ask questions.
4. Other possible points of contact. The Buddhist teaching about suffering
provides a useful point of
contact. Christians and Buddhists agree that suffering is universal
(Romans 8:22). The question of the
cause of suffering can open us a significant discussion. We both agree
that wrong behaviour such as
selfishness is a major cause (see James 1:13-15, Romans 6:23) and hence
the suffering of Christ is
directly linked to the sin of all peoples. But the Christian believes
that suffering will not be eliminated
in a fallen world and we look forward to Christ’s return when all suffering
will end. In the meantime,
we can grow through suffering (Romans 5:3-5) and we are called on to
help those who are suffering
(Matthew 25:31-45, 2 Corinthians 1:4).
A Buddhist’s understanding of sin as such, however, is very limited.
They know the five precepts of
ethical behaviour, but have no basis for the fundamental nature of
sin, namely to ignore God or to be
God’s of one’s own life. We know that we are born into sin and our
desires are twisted by sin
(Romans 7:21-25), but through Christ’s saving grace we are both forgiven
and enabled to resist evil
(Romans 3:21-27, Ephesians 2:8-10).
Five other points of contact
• a person’s desire to be released from the bondage of karma and the
accumulation of previous
lives;
• a person’s search for an unselfish state of mind or an attitude of
deep devotion;
• a more satisfactory explanation of suffering and of death;
• a discussion of the after-life
• the Sermon on the Mount, which provides a link in view of its practical
promotion of an ascetic
life-style.
indicate your acceptance of the Noble Eightfold Path (with some modification
of the fourth), while
making it clear firstly, that we cannot follow these paths unless God
is at work in our lives, and
secondly that your eighth path would have to read, ‘accepting God’s
forgiveness and presence in my
life through Christ and his work on the cross’.