My father, reflecting on many years in parish ministry, told me that ‘if you try to please everyone you end up pleasing no one.’ My experience has borne this out; ‘you just can’t please everyone in life.’ Throughout my life I have seen how these statements are almost universally true. However the flexibility within Buddhism has often allowed it to keep everyone within their religion happy, regardless of the type of religion they are searching for.
As we have seen, Buddhism often places a strong emphasis on personal experience, typically at the expense of any scriptural authority. The result of this has been that many different beliefs and practices have been incorporated into Buddhism, some of which at best are either extremely liberal interpretations of Gautama’s teaching or are quite foreign to the initial spirit found in the teaching of Gautama. This broadening of what is ‘Buddhist’ has given Buddhism wide appeal as the religion spread, though it has done so at the expense of its original character.
This is clearly evident in Mahayana Buddhism, which is sometimes also known as Northern Buddhism. This school of thought has come to be popular in countries such as China, Japan, parts of the former Soviet Union, Tibet, Mongolia, Korea, Vietnam and Nepal. The growth in Buddhism outside of its original cultural setting, along with a degree of metaphysical amplification has resulted in a Buddhist system of thought that if far removed from the relative simplicity of Gautama’s message. This did not happen suddenly. The nature and teaching of early Mahayana scriptures was not that different to the Theravada. Its contents are very much a continuation of the development of Buddhism as a religion. It was not till some time later when fundamental differences appeared between the two schools.
Mahayana Buddhism is also referred to by many of its adherents as the ‘great’ vehicle compared to Theravada’s ‘little’ or ‘incomplete’ vehicle. This distinction can be understood in two ways. One way is in terms of the extreme difficulty in literally following Theravada’s strict ‘teaching of the elders’, and how it has effectively placed a limit on who can achieve the Buddhist goal. It has been felt that in many ways, an escape from pain and suffering can only be achieved by ordained monks. Lay Buddhists can achieve good Karma, but they can not achieve their goal in this lifetime. Conversely, the Mahayana school of Buddhism claims that salvation is realistically attainable by all who follow this path. With its inbuilt flexibility, specific teachings can be either adopted, or a mixture of teachings selected, that will suit the individual and their specific cultural environment.
The other way in which this distinction is used is on a more spiritual
level. Mahayanists claim a threefold superiority. They view themselves
as having a more compassionate motivation compared to the selfish and possibly
more individualistic motivations of traditional Buddhism; they seek a stronger
goal than traditional Buddhism, that is Buddhahood rather than simply arahatship;
and they believe that they have a greater level of understanding of the
Buddha’s teaching.
Additional Schools of Thought
In much the same way that the Mahayana school grew out of, and superseded
the Theravada school during the rapid spreading of Buddhism, so too did
streams develop within of the Mahayana which over time developed into separate
schools. Major examples of this can be seen in the schools of Vajrayana
Buddhism, Lamaism, and Zen Buddhism. We will briefly examine Vajrayana,
on account of its use of mantras, and Zen Buddhism, on account of its popularity
in the western world.
What must be remembered is that Mahayana Buddhism, like all Buddhist
schools are highly philosophical in nature. To maintain a degree of popular
appeal, the Mahayana conceptually simplifies itself so that the non-professional
Buddhist can hold on to what they believe to be ‘concrete’ concepts which
are really abstract in nature. The consequence of this is that Mahayana
philosophers would end up essentially denying concepts as articulated by
many lay-Buddhists. This tends to not only lead to a complete misunderstanding
between lay Buddhists and monks, but the continual development of fresh
‘Buddhism as Practiced’. It also makes it difficult to take the lay
persons understanding of Buddhist doctrines at face value.
Vajrayana
One of the strongly influential schools to grow out of the Mahayana
is that of the mystical and magical school of the Vajrayana, otherwise
known as vehicle of the diamond, or the ‘indestructible’ vehicle. This
school, which dates back to the third century AD in India. Vajrayana Buddhism
is important in the way in which it has been responsible for two major
streams of thought which have come to permeate much of Buddhist thought.
This tradition is central in the development of the idea of the awakened being, called the Bodhisattva, who seeks to assist all creatures to gain nirvana. The second major contribution is in terms of meditative practice. Vajrayana Buddhism places a high degree of emphasis on the use of mantras, which are special words or phrases that act to protect the mind within meditation and devotion. These words are often highly personal, with some teaching on mantras suggesting that a mantra only has power while it’s specifics are kept secret from others.
The New Age movement has embraced the usage of mantras, along with many
other Buddhist meditation techniques. However, the New Age is often highly
eclectic in what it does and doesn’t take, and often skips over many of
the less experiential preliminaries that Buddhism would regard as important
in the overall path to an enlightened life.
Zen
Zen Buddhism is one of the very few major branches of Buddhism that
do not originate in India, instead being founded in China during the sixth
century AD. The practice of Zen Buddhism (Zen meaning ‘meditation’) traces
its history to the experience of Gautama under the Bo tree following a
period of immense concentration. Since the attainment of this truth is
far beyond any expression in human language, Zen emphasis a strong lack
of dependence upon written scriptures or literature of any kind. Zen also
does not place any emphasis on the worship of Buddha. Rather, people posses
with in them Dharma and enlightenment comes from the intuitive apprehension
of one’s identity with the Absolute.
Zen requires great personal discipline. Enlightenment comes only after lengthy preparation of mind and body. Instructions are given by the Zen master, and changes in daily routine and surroundings are made to prepare the mind and body so that the Zen Buddhist may attain enlightenment. This may be achieved by sitting for several hours, having given initial attention to the correct positioning of legs, arms, hands, back, head and eyes and to correct breathing, while the mind is sharpened by concentration to the point of freedom from all bondage to thoughts or imaginations of any kind, resulting in a state of ‘absolute emptiness’. A short phrase or question which seems absolutely devoid of logic or meaning may be used to assist in concentration and in breaking through the illusion of individual existence in which humanity is bound. Such intuitive breakthrough demonstrates that all is one without distinction, and that ‘Buddha is all and I am Buddha.’ By doing this, all ritual, doctrines, scriptures, images, Buddhas, and all other elements of religious systems lose total significance.
When this is achieved, one can be said to be transmitting the Buddha’s
awakening in a form that does not rely on words and stands entirely independent
of written scriptures. This is called mind-to-mind transmission of spiritual
insight. This mind-to-mind transmission of insight has, according to Zen
teaching, continued in an unbroken lineage through what are called the
Zen Patriarchs. In China, Zen (or Ch’an) has not only shaped Chinese Buddhism,
but has also had a major impact on the indigenous Chinese religions of
Confucianism and Taoism. In turn, the dominance of Chinese Zen between
the ninth and fourteenth centuries resulted in Chinese Zen reshaping Indian
Zen with aspects picked up in Confucianism and Taoism.
Scriptures
The scriptures of the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools, which are in
Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese, have a great deal of overlap and
include much that is in Theravada’s Pali Canon. However, because they were
passed down through different groups of Buddhists, the material is in a
different order and there are different readings within the texts. There
are also additional sutras which have the authority of Buddha-word and
provide the distinctive emphases and teaching of the different schools.
Both collections are longer than the Pali Tripitaka, with a recent collection
of Japanese is in fifty-five western style volumes, with a supplement of
another forty-five books. The title of the Chinese collection ‘Great
Scripture Store’ is a much better title than ‘Canon’ which means ‘measuring
rod’ or ‘norm’. This tends to emphasise the exclusion and rejection of
some materials, while the Chinese term describes more a rich store of ideas
and stories, which have their source in the Dharma and are able to help
people of all abilities and temperaments along the path to enlightenment.
The result of this is that there is no one Mahayana canon, with each country
coming to have its own collection written in its own language, e.g. Chinese,
Tibetan, Nepali, Korean, Japanese. Further, the lack of clearly defined
limits to what constitutes the Mahayana ‘canon’ allows comparatively
recent works by later innovators to be often given de facto canonical status
in the sects which adhere to their teachings. As there are such a number
and such a variety of of scriptures, most Mahayana groups have chosen certain
favourite ones to which they refer exclusively. Such selection is necessary
as the extreme bulk and breadth of the scriptures make it impossible for
followers to be acquainted with, let alone understand and practise, the
often complicated and contradictory teachings found in them.
Like the Theravada Scriptures, the Mahayana divide their canon into three chief categories;
1. Vinaya - rules for religious orders
2. Sutras - discourses. These correspond roughly to those in the Theravada
Sutta-Pitaka.
3. Shastras - philosophical discussions.
While Theravada scriptures are reasonably set, Mahayana scriptures have
multiplied to the point where standard editions of the Chinese canon encompass
over 5,000 volumes. This makes the Theravada scriptures look relatively
brief by comparison.
The Issue of Salvation
Many Buddhists understand that it is almost impossible to be saved
through Theravada Buddhism. It is all up to an individuals efforts; there
is no divine help in this, all rituals and images are rejected on account
of being unhelpful. It is taught that there is no point in praying to Buddha
as he has been swallowed up in nirvana, that is;
The concept of the Bodhisattva
In Theravada, the main personal goal that one is likely to achieve
is that of the Arahat. Mahayana continues the development of this
concept through to the stage of the Bodhisattva.
The Bodhisattva was not a totally new concept in Buddhism, though the
construction of it as a path that all should adopt was new. In its fully
developed sense, this concept introduces elements that a in clear contrast
to the more traditional forms of Buddhism; such as altruistic activity,
vicarious suffering, and transferable merit. The development of universal
compassion through contemplating the plight of others and generating the
resolve to release all others from their pain and frustration. The Vajrayana
school takes this a step further, through the development of ‘powerful
actions’ through a transformational psychology which is based on methods
of projective meditation called visualisation.
Functionaries
While Theravada Buddhism places a high degree of importance on the
ordained community of monks, Mahayana places more importance on the Realised
community (arya-sangha). These are people who have become realised
(or ayras) through having gained full-blown, though temporary insight
into egolessness which they then consolidate with further meditation. While
these may be ordained members of the Sangha, many are lay people.
Buddhology
The concept of the Buddha began to undergo radical alteration very
soon after Gautama’s death. Mahayana Buddhism deifies, codifies and multiplies.
Given that Gautama was an atheist who refused to speculate on the existence
of deities and life after death, is now himself worshipped as a God by
many Mahayana Buddhists. However, this is not simply a case of turning
one person into a God. Gautama has been trinitised into ‘three bodies’;
the ‘manifested body’, which was the historical human being; the ‘Mythical
body’ which represents the perfect and ideal personal being; and the ‘Law
Body’ which is the ultimate reality. Given the Monist world view where
all is considered to be one, so to is the historical Buddha part of the
whole. Gautama is one of countless historical manifestations of Buddha
throughout history.
Worship
Mahayana attempts to give visible representations to the abstract idea
of greatness or infinity that arise in the minds of humans. Worship can
look very elaborate, actual temple ceremonies for the lay Buddhist are
generally limited to a few special commemorative festival occasions throughout
the year.
Prayer, adoration and worship are the most powerful aspect of Mahayana
devotion. They revere Gautama as a great teacher. However, Bodhisattvas
are more than teachers. They are worshipped as saviour and redeemer. (especially
Amitabha and Kuan Yin, the goddess of compassion who guides
the faithful to the promised land). They are the helper of the needy in
every situation. Japanese Buddhists perform regular worship in the family
home. An alter is constructed, in which are enshrined the posthumous Buddhist
names of departed ancestors.
In conclusion.
The school of Mahayana Buddhism has seen a series of radical metaphysical
changes which are in strong contradiction to the strict Theravada tradition.
Firstly, the suggestion of an Absolute or Supreme reality which is worthy
of prayer and worship can be seen to be the opposite position taken in
the original teaching of Gautama. Secondly, a paradigm shift occurred which
resulted in a shift away from Monism towards the development of a more
pantheistic world view, where God is everything and everything is God.
Finally, Mahayana Buddhists recognise that humans posses a ‘soul’ which
is able to survive death, and may pass through several cosmological states,
such as heavens or hells en route to final beatitude. Again, this is in
strong contrast to the Theravada, which denies the existence of a soul
and believes that only a person’s Karma survives death.
How then, do we hold these two major streams together as belonging to the one religion. I would suggest that while the dynamic nature of this religion has meant that the concrete expressions of Buddhist philosophy in the teachings and practices within Buddhism has become more and more diverse, there exists a basic metaphysical worldview that underlies all schools within Buddhism. This worldview is structured in such a comprehensive way that, regardless of a persons specific religious practices or beliefs within the Buddhist world, there are elements within Buddhism’s metaphysical worldview that one can easily assent to.