Terms within Buddhism
In order to fully comprehend the Buddha’s middle path as followed in
Southern or Theravada Buddhism, you need to understand some key
definitions. Keep in mind how these definitions help compose a unique world
view that is fundamentally different to the Christian theistic world view.
Impermanence
It can be said that the Buddha denied the existence of the self as
a separate entity, stating ‘There is no permanent ego’. What then exists?
Firstly, we can say that every living thing has a dharma nature; that is
‘the enlightened nature which all life innately possesses. It’s truth is
eternal and unchanging.’ We can also say that life is one and indivisible.
Separate individual existence is really an illusion. From this we can say
that the self has neither a beginning or and ending. Buddhism teaches
that all that exists passes through the cycle of birth, growth, decay and
what we would term as death. However, in reality, there is no such thing
as death, only dissolution. If life is indivisible, then on the death of
one, all would die. That which is life possess forms that are ever changing,
innumerable in number, and in a constant process of decay. In a sense,
we, and all physical forms within the universe, only exist as a phenomena.
Karma and Rebirth
In traditional forms of Buddhism, the concepts of Karma and
rebirth are intertwined and inseparable, though the traditional concept
of rebirth as a literal doctrine has found itself under a fair deal of
re-interpretation particularly in western Buddhism.
The word Karma simply means ‘actions.’ The general idea behind karma is that every thought and action of a person not only changes circumstances in the world, but also reverberates internally on the person and changes their future circumstances in this and in other lives.
In the same way that we can describe an action as being either good or bad, we can say that each of these actions will bring about a different result. Good Karma is what which comes from positive actions (kusala-karma). Such karma leads to desirable results such as good friends, material wealth and the like, and these factors contribute to happiness and well-being. Conversely, bad Karma is that which comes from negative actions. Such actions lead to undesirable results, be it poverty, lack of influence, a short life and so on. Such evil karma produces those circumstances that contribute to suffering, pain and isolation.
Given that Theravada Buddhism does not acknowledge the existence of theistic beings, Karma is not a simple case of ‘God punishing the bad and rewarding the good’ which exists in many religious systems. There is no being or force which handles the operation of the effects of karma. The principle of karma is based in the theory of behavioural consequences (karma-vipaka). What you sow you reap, and neither you or another person, a priest, or a God can suspend the operation of karmic law or withhold the consequences of a deed. Karma itself will yield the result, as a neutral operation of the law of cause and effect.
So what drives the karmic process? The false belief in an individual self, which leads to the perpetuation of the self from lifetime to lifetime (samsara).
We can say there are several types of Karma
Illustrations
Exercise: Please turn to John Hick’s article ‘Is
rebirth an essential Buddhist doctrine?' Here we have a western philosopher
rethinking the concept of rebirth and karma. He claims that his interpretation
is more consistent with the Buddhist teaching on selflessness than the
traditional versions of rebirth.
1. How is ‘rebecoming’ defined, and what is its relationship
to ‘rebirth’?
2. What was the Buddha’s understanding of ‘reincarnation’?
3. In what way is the concept of memory important regarding
past lives?
4. On death, what happens to internal Karma? How is this different
to what happens with external Karma?
5. Do you think that Hick is entitled to reinterpret Buddhist
doctrines in this way?
Nirvana
Given that Nirvana is a state only obtainable after a period
of prolonged meditation, it is very difficult to adequately describe. We
can ascribe various short definitions, non of which are adequate within
themselves, but together paint a picture of what constitutes Nirvana.
It is;
The concept makes more sense when it is remembered that Gautama’s sole
objective was to achieve a permanent release from that suffering (dukkha)
that permeate the whole of existence. He believes that his painful journey
has taken thousands of lifetimes, and his joy come from a knowledge that
this long and painful journey has at last stopped. His disciples often
asked him if he would, given his achievement of nirvana, experience any
type of existence after dissolution. He would not answer this question,
only to say that there is a condition where all that is physical, including
cause and effect is non existence.
Other Elements of Theravada Buddhism
Worship
Formalised worship is deemed to be unimportant in Theravada Buddhism,
though specific attitudes towards worship are often more tied in with local
culture. Practically, there is generally a relaxed attitude towards traditional
devotion, with worship being viewed more as a necessary preliminary rather
than as a central part of Buddhist life.
We can identify three kinds of objects of worship
Functionaries
Functionaries in Buddhism are referred to as the Sangha. In
general terms the Sangha refers to the entire commuinity of Buddhists and
does not discriminate between different groups within this community. However,
each different tradition within Buddhism places a different emphasis
on functionaries within the Buddhist community. Given the Buddhas teaching
that happiness is not achieved by social change but an inward transformation,
the social and institutional features of Buddhism have tended to be defined
by the need to develop and maintain meditative cultures where people can
pursue their own personal contemplative practices. This has meant that
traditionally, Theravada Buddhism has institutionally limited itself to
the support and preservation of the ordained monastic community (bhikshu).
This has meant that lay practitioners (male - upasaka female - upasika)
have only come to assume a secondary role, which has often equated to the
provision of material support for the contemplative and educational pursuits
of monks and nuns.
Scripture in Theravada Buddhism
The Buddha was happy for his teaching to be translated from the dialect which he spoke (probably Magadhan) into the many languages of his followers throughout India. The enabled his teaching to be spread far and wide in a large variety of dialects. With some help from western scholars, in particular T.W. Rhys Davids in the 1880’s, the collection in the Pali language, claiming to be the most complete, has become the most published. These texts are known as the Pali Canon.
The story of scripture begins after the death of Buddha (around 483 BCE) when one of his followers said that now the Buddha was dead they could all do what they liked. To maintain the authority of the Buddha’s teaching there was a gathering of 500 senior members of the religious community (Sangha) at what is now known as the first council. One of the Buddha’s closest disciples, Ananda recited all the saying he had heard. The community checked and agreed on the material, then memorised it for future transmission. Another close disciple, Upali, recited all the rules which the Buddha had laid down. These were also agreed upon and memorised.
This gave the community the first two sections of the Pali Canon; the sayings or discourses, which form the Sutra Pitaka, and the Sangha rules, which form the Vinaya Pitaka. It does not appear that the third and final section of the canon, dealing with ‘higher dharma’ was fixed until some time later. Up to this point, all material was still in spoken form. It was not until the first century B.C., on the island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), that the first Buddhist scriptures were written down.
The Pali Canon came to be known as the ‘Tripitaka.’ The texts were originally written on palm leaf manuscripts with each section being put into a separate baskets (pitaka) for storage. This gave these scriptures their other name; The Three Baskets.’ The total volume of these three groups of writings is about eleven times larger than the Bible.
1. The Sutra Pitaka, which literally means ‘The threaded dialogue basket’. This contains the dialogues of the Buddha in which teaching is threaded together on a common theme. Given that the Buddha was not one for long sermons, these dialogues take place in an atmosphere of debate and mutual exchanges of ideas. The sutras are grouped in five sections, with each sub-divided into groups of sutras and individual sutras. These are the most popular and widely read texts of the Theravada tradition, covering not only famous general summaries, such as the Four Truths and the Eightfold Part, but many specific and practical sections addressed to householders or lay Buddhists. We can say that the overriding goal of this teaching is that complete attitude of alertness to the all of life, which is one and indivisible.
2. The Vinaya Pitaka, which literally means ‘The Discipline Basket’. This group is further split into five books of detailed regulations for the lives of monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis). The core rule to be followed is called the Pratimoksa, which is recited at a fortnightly gathering when there is open admission of faults and penance for them. This fortnightly meeting and fast day is called the uposatha, and takes place at new and full moon. Following this are 227 rules in eight groups, arranged order of seriousness, with the most serious of these leading to permanent expulsion from the Sangha. These rules are designed to facilitate community life, so that there may be harmony and that the common goal of enlightenment may be reached.
3. The Abhidharma Pitaka, meaning ‘higher dharma basket’. This group of writings look at Buddhist metaphysics, and contains the writings of later scholars on doctrine and ethics. It is higher in the sense that is is more analytic and systematic in its approach to the teaching, being the last part to be added. It contains careful summaries of material from the sutras and adds analysis of words, passages and ideas. This basket is intended for specialists and not for the common people.
The Buddha used this analytical method and passed it down to his followers, who continued to develop in question and answer form, the interpretation of key concepts. Ideas are developed in this fashion. The idea of ‘right speech’ is understood as one of the requirements of the eightfold path. The question is asked ‘What is right speech’ to which the answer is given ‘Abstaining from speech that is false, slanderous, harsh and frivolous’ The the idea of abstaining is further analysed ‘that which is avoiding, desisting from, abstaining from, not committing, not doing, being guiltless of, not overstepping the limit of, destroying the causeway to the four verbal wrong actions.’
The seven Abhidharma sections of logical and psychological analysis
include one which is a description of the different types of people there
are, their spiritual traits and their stage along the path to enlightenment.
As the Buddha took great care to fit his teaching to the particular needs
and abilities of people, this kind of understanding is important for the
continued adaptation of his teaching and the growth of the Dharma.
The Role of Scriptures in Buddhism
Throughout its history, Buddhist tradition has maintained a paradoxical attitude toward its sacred tests. On the one hand, those texts have themselves been the objects of the utmost veneration; and life, limb, and more have been sacrificed to ensure their unaltered preservation and correct understanding. Texts are placed in shrine rooms and meditation halls in a position of honour. Public recitation of texts is said to bring about a special connection with the Dharma that it teaches, aiding enlightenment.
However, at the same time, Buddhism avers that the sacred text has, in and of itself, no particular value. Its worth depends entirely on what is done with it, and at best, the sacred text is never more than an aid that must be abandoned by each individual at a certain point on their journey toward the Buddhist goal of enlightenment. Therefore, in Buddhism, the sacred text is an answer to spiritual longing, and also no answer at all, or rather an “answer in the way it points beyond and, in fact, away from itself”. The degree to which this happens depends of the particular tradition or school within a particular tradition. Mahayana Buddhist texts distinguish between that religious teaching that is based on an understanding derived from texts, with that religious teaching that is grounded in an experiential understanding, teaching that it is the teaching from experience that is to be revered. Furthermore, Zen Buddhism distinguishes itself as a tradition that ‘transmits insight outside of (or without reference to) scriptures.’
The paradox of how Buddhism views its sacred texts is expressed in the “Discourse on the Great Decease”, an early sutta describing the events surrounding the death of the Buddha. As the Buddha’s death approaches, his beloved attendant and disciple, Ananda, is beside himself with grief. How, he asks, can the Blessed One, counsellor, guide and friend for so many years, leave his disciples? Who will look after them, who will teach them and lead them henceforth? Ananda’s implication is perhaps that the Buddha set up some person or some institution in his place to act as final authority and arbiter in matters of dispute.
The Buddha explicitly rejects this line of thought. Instead he says “henceforth, be ye lamps unto yourselves and be ye refuges unto yourselves, seek no other refuge; let the dharma be your lamp and your refuge, and seek no other refuge.” Here dharma refers to the teachings and, most concretely, the texts containing the Buddha’s teaching, thus establishing sacred scripture in a special position of authority in the tradition. But, at the same time, the authority specifically of the sacred text and more generally of the Buddhist teachings is here understood as appositive to, and thus inseparable from, being a lamp unto oneself and a refuge unto oneself, relying on nothing else. Here we have our paradox again, in a different form, in this asseveration of a literal authority that is ultimately not different from the solitary individual entirely “on his own.”
Here then are two sides of the paradoxical attitude to Buddhism toward
its sacred texts: on one hand the authoritative text whose authority derives
precisely from the way in which it ultimately undercuts its own authority;
on the other, the tradition of letters offered as a “refuge” in such a
way that it is understood to be ultimately inseparable from an individual
in his nakedness and aloneness relying on nothing but himself. It is this
paradox that stands at the heart of the Buddhist approach to sacred text.
Conclusion - Theravada Buddhism
Overall, we can say that Buddhism is a religion of practice rather
than faith or belief. Buddhists often describe their religion as being
positionless (apaksha) or as having no viewpoint (adrshti).
The Buddha avoided all claims of divinity. He professed to point out the
way and to give guidance to those who seek to walk in it, but those who
walk in it must do so on their own. What he taught was not a system of
faith or worship. He did not urge his followers to engage in prayer or
praise. He didn’t offer redemption, forgiveness or heaven. He did not warn
of any judgment or concept of hell. He did not speculate on ultimate reality,
or meaningfully engage in metaphysical discussions on the First cause which
initiated the original chain of cause and effect. He could not be pinged
down regarding any future life, and the ultimate aim of Nirvana was left
with a minimal definition.
Therefore, given this aversion to metaphysical doctrines, the insight
that Buddhists claim to seek can be described as the thorough eradication
of all fixed views or dogmatic opinions since all such views are regarded
by Buddhists as constraining and limiting. We examined last week the practices
of Buddhism that lead to this insight. These three graded practices
of wholesome moral behaviour (shila), mental integration through
meditation (samadhi) and the special discernment of insight (prajna).
These practices constitute the core of Buddhist practice, and traditionally
they presupposed a renunciate self-denying lifestyle. These practices are
that which constitute the foundation of Theravada Buddhism.