The nature of our task
    What are we trying to accomplish in this study of religions? The Australian College of Theology describes the nature of these units as being ‘not polemical, but missionary, ecumenical, and theological.’ That is, this unit is not to be theologically controversial.  Issues such as the Christians claims to uniqueness in the Christian message, or the relative merits of religious doctrines contrasted to salvation through grace alone through Jesus Christ do not belong to this section of the course. To get the most out of this course, it is vital that you do not adopt a defensive attitude towards your faith. Rather, be prepared to try and understand not just what others think, but how others think. If your immediate reaction to every doctrinal point of other religions is to criticise and dismiss it in light of the gospel message, then, unfortunately, you will learn little about what others think, and why they think this way.

     An open attitude in your studies can have a great positive effect. Here’s an example of how God can use this attitude.

During my uni studies, I had to read a book called the ‘Bhagavad Gita.’ This is one of the popular Hindu scriptures. As I started reading it, I felt a sense of repugnance towards the teaching in this scripture which I found to be defeatist, fatalistic, and basically stupid. However, I persisted, and actively engaged with the book and the issues raised in the book (though I did complain to my wife after every reading session). On the next Saturday, I was going to a men's breakfast organised by Harboard Anglican. Being rather late (as is my custom), I was the last to arrive at the restaurant. There being only one seat left, I sat down, only to find that I was sitting next to a practising Hindu who had been invited by a friend.   Having taken an attitude of engagement in my reading (rather than being primarily dismissive) I was able to engage in a conversation with this man that only his friend and I would have appreciated, discussing his beliefs in an intelligent manner in light of the gospel. I didn’t convert this bloke on the spot, but (given how appreciative his friend was that I had taken an interest in him) it was a positive session of Christian witnessing. This was not something that I could have organised (if I had been on time I would have sat with all my friends another table) but God using my studies to glorify him.

    This course is, by its nature, very brief. If a member of another religion was to try and convert us away from Christianity having only ever attended four hours worth of  sessions on the Christian faith, they would probably make a bit of a meal of it. If the whole of our faith could be thoroughly and comprehensively taught in four hours, then neither Dip Theols or this college would exist; there would be no need. In the same manner, we can only hope to touch on that which makes up religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism. If you feel called to minister to these other groups, this is a great place to start, but it should be understood as that - only a start.
 
    It is important that your studies occur in the context of prayer; praying that God will both guide you and protect you. If at any stage, your faith is troubled by the materials presented, put your studies down, and go and have a chat to your minister about how you’re going. It is my desire that, by being aware of the faith of those around you, that your faith in Jesus may grow, and that you will be able to serve him better in either a missionary situation, or in multicultural Australia.
 

The concept of ‘worldviews’
     Not everyone thinks like you do! This is something so basic, that we learn at such a young age, that we tend to either forget it, or fail to apply to the whole of our lives. We each have what we shall call a ‘worldview’ that lies behind the way in which we live. It affects our intellectual approach to life, our economic thinking (why we work and how we spend our wages) and our ethical and moral approach to life. To this end we shall define a ‘worldview’ as;

‘a set of presuppositions (that may be true, false, or somewhere in between) which are held (either consciously or unconsciously, consistently or inconsistently) about the makeup of the world and our place in it’

     So far this could be said to be an individualistic approach. Your worldview is different to my worldview because we have different backgrounds. But it should be noted that some worldviews will have more in common with other world views as we may share common experiences. For example, mine may be similar to yours because we come from the same country town, or experienced our primary or secondary education under the same education system, or we may have been in the same class. So individual worldviews may have factors in common that can be traced to a particular aspect of society.

 Worldviews that have fundamental features in common can be bought together to form a generalised worldview of a particular community. These are often  referred to as ‘Paradigms.’ which we will define as;

‘the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques and so forth shared by members of a community’

 In ‘Building a Christian World View’, it is argued that an individual worldview is no private manner. These views are

‘expressed by social groups in political and economic programmes, artistic and literary works, and institutions such as the family and education. We pattern our government, print and distribute money, regulate marriage and divorce and send our children to college on the basis of their worldview.’

Different Worldviews Defined
    I would suggest that two major subjects have dominated Western worldviews; that of theology (being the study of God) and anthropology (the study of man).

     For centuries, a ‘theistic’ worldview was dominant (or more specifically ‘Christian’ theism). This view held that God was the sovereign creator of the universe, including man. He initiated a relationship with humanity and controls history. He is both transcendent (above everything) and immanent (working within creation). Man is made in the image of God, and is therefore unique in creation, and incapable of being spiritually or morally neutral. Humanity is to worship and serve its creator in every aspect of life. Up till the 17th century in the western world, these were the dominant basic presuppositions. People lived in a context of ideas influenced and informed by the Christian faith.

    However, from around the time of the Renaissance (15th century) a paradigm shift away from theism towards a generalised category that we can call ‘naturalism’ was occurring.  Naturalism holds that the universe is composed only of matter. This matter has always existed, and therefore has no creator. Humans are complex ‘machines’, part of the matter of the universe, which developed through an evolutionary process, though we are probably the only self conscious beings in the universe. As such, these is no spiritual or supernatural dimension to the universe. History is a linear chain of cause and effect devoid of any underlying purpose. As evolution has no inherent goal, human history has no inherent or predetermined goal. Death involves the extinction of personality and individuality. There being no soul, the individual ceases at death. There is no after life. However, we are consciously free to consider, decide and act. Our values are man made. Ethics are autonomous and situational, stemming from human need and interest. Those who hold this worldview observe that all people have a sense of moral values, some derived from intuition, others from authority, and others from convention. These values differ from culture to culture and do not seem to be universal. Therefore, ethics are personal and chosen.

    Another worldview that appeared during the decline of theism, is that of ‘Deism’. This worldview can be traced to a shift away from belief in the authority of scripture, towards a belief in the supremacy of reason that developed in England during the 17th and 18th centuries. While acknowledging that the universe was created by a transcendent God, it is believed that God lost interest in it, and left it to run itself. God does not take an active role in caring for the universe. Therefore, God cannot be known through either revelation or acts of self expression such as scripture or the incarnation. While God created man, it is the universe that can be seen as an expression of God’s power. Man was made with intelligence, moral sense and a capacity for community and creativity. This lack of concern means that God is not to be worshipped. It is just an intellect or force to be recognised. Any relationship or communication between God and humanity is non existent. If you study the universe, and you are studying God. History was determined at creation, and God can not, and will not intervene, there being no special purpose. There is no clear teaching on the afterlife, as God has no continuing interest in us, and being uninclined to reveal himself, there is no basis for a system of ethics.

    While these three worldviews of theism, naturalism, and deism have been held throughout western history, other paradigms have prominent throughout other parts of the world.

    The monistic world view can be traced back to early Greek philosophy, particularly Thales of Miletus who held that everything was in the form of water. Pantheistic Monism has historically been the prominent Eastern worldview behind such religions as Buddhism and Hinduism. It is distinguishable from other worldviews in its assertion that only one impersonal element constitutes reality. The universe is one. The soul of any person or living creature is identical with the essence of the cosmos. That is, man has no individual existence, being part of the whole. Nature is not a separate creation, but one representation of the absolute. As such, these representations can be seen as illusory in one sense and unimportant. The ultimate aim of human life is to achieve union (or reunion) with the universe. Time is understood as cyclical. As everything will return to the one, history can have no meaning. Death is part of this process. As part of the process of life. Death is the end of the individual personal existence, but it changes nothing essential in an individuals nature. A common concept almost universal in Eastern thought is that of Karma. If you have done something wrong, there is no forgiveness. Rather, the penalty must be paid. Good deeds are undertaken in order to attain unity with the one, not out of any sense of love or in response to a set of ethics.

    Another worldview is commonly referred to as the pre-literate or primal worldview, though this terminology is often considered to be somewhat degrading. However, a primal worldview does not mean that the culture is itself necessarily simplistic or failed to properly evolve ‘like our culture.’  Such a worldview has been held by up to 40% of the worlds population. This brand of worldview often transcends the secular-sacred distinction which is taken for granted in the West, where some things are viewed as secular, while others are viewed as sacred or holy (such as church buildings).

     In the primal worldview, the universe is a living being (or animate). There is no real distinction between the physical and the spiritual. Religion is an integral part of everyday life. Humans form part of the universe, constantly interacting with the spiritual dimension, but they are not considered to be the most important part of it. The actions of humanity affect both the visible physical world, as well as the unseen world. The cyclical nature of time can be seen in the passing of the seasons. However, unlike monism, there is often a very strong sense of history, as can be seen in the strong emphasis on religious myth. Death is normally seen as the doorway to a different existence, usually as part of the spirit world. It is common for people expect to stay in the same geographic area, though in a different dimension. However, as the dimensions overlap, so there is still contact with the living. The basis of the value system is caught up in the fact that the physical and spiritual worlds are bound up together. Therefore, wrongdoing has far-reaching effects in the unseen, as well as the visible world. Ethics are usually tribal.

    A more recent worldview is that of the ‘new age’. This worldview draws to some extent on all previous worldviews. Like Naturalism and monism, there is no transcendent God or distinction between reality and illusion. However, there are countless spiritual beings. The approach to spiritual beings is like the primal worldview, in that apparently inanimate objects may have spirits in them, and some of these spirits may need to be kept happy. Picking up on Naturalism’s evolutionary understanding, history is viewed as linear and evolutionary as we move towards an awakening of a new consciousness. In the vein of primal and monist world view, death is not then end of self, but a transition process. As in naturalism, good and evil are no no consequence as the new age teaches with absolute certainty that there are no absolute. (This is of course a problem, as the teaching in itself is an absolute.)

Exercise: Examine the following chart of worldviews. Take time to note the similarities and differences between each worldview. Give particular attention to the way in which the ‘New Age’ worldview draws on various other worldviews.
 

Defining Religion
    However, these worldviews in themselves do not constitute what we would refer to as a ‘religion’. Rather, they are the building blocks on which religion be based. But what is it that constitutes ‘religion’?  Different people with different viewpoints have offered ideas on what religion is. Catholic theologian Hans Kung, once said in regards to the term religion

‘I knew what it was until you asked me to explain it’

‘A system of symbols which act to establish powerful pervasive, and long lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the motivations and moods seem uniquely realistic’

    Other definitions view the study of religion solely as the study of persons, as an examination of what exists within the human heart. Such a method understands  religion solely in terms of belief. If we then understand religions in terms of systems, then such a system would not represent a group of certain ideas. Rather, it would represent a particular way of holding these ideas together. From this, we could suggest that religious systems can be defined in terms of attitudes, where it is the attitudes and not the contents are definite. While this may appear appropriate, to solely define in terms of attitude may give to broad an account of religion to be of any use. It is probably best to separate ideology from religion, otherwise any group professing a particular ideology, be it say economic or political would end up being a religion. Some are keen for a wide definition, as religious groups are blessed with considerable tax benefits. The Church of Scientology is a prime example of a group setting itself up as a religion for tax purposes.

A suitable understanding of religion could be;

a complex pattern of beliefs and practices which point to a set of values and an understanding of the meaning of the universe.

a recognition of a superhuman controlling power, and especially of a personal God entitled to some form of obedience, and the corresponding effect of such recognition on conduct and mental attitude.

Elements of Religious Systems

We could say that most religions contain the following elements

1. The beliefs of the community about God or the supernatural
2. The beliefs of the community about God’s relationship with the world
3. The ways in which people within the community worship God and pray to it.
4. The rules which the community follows because of their beliefs about God
5. The places and people which the community believe to be holy and to belong to God in a special way.

1. Ritual.  Religious rituals are those aspects associated with visual observations or outworkings that are undertaken to represent a spiritual truth. They may be individual, family or collective. They may be liturgical or spontaneous, public or private or take sacrificial forms. Ritual is often bound up with culture and humanities understanding of the character of the God(s) or the supernatural.

2. Mythology. Myths can be associated either with history or legend (‘myth’ meaning being taken as true). The function of myth is to explain the vital issues and values of the particular society. A myth may come to represent the traditional or underlying  causes of a current state, be it a physical state, such as why nature is like it is, or emotional state, such as why we act or think like we do.

3. Doctrinal. These are the intellectual formalisation and organisation of ideas of group beliefs and practices. These may include a justification of its own authority, such as defining the scriptures on which it is based.

4. Ethical. An association with a code of behaviour often arises, usually a moral code. This has important social implications.

5. Social. Religions occur in social contexts. Religious societies or communities either form into an organisational structure of some sort (such as church, monastery, home group movement), or are part of a wider organisation (such as the tribe). Religions develop an understanding on how they will socially relate to these organisations. If, as some anthropologists would argue, religion is a necessary element for a well run society, then the sociological function of defining relationships within society, in conjunction with the religious moral code, ultimately becomes the benchmark in dictating how society will function.

6. Experiential. Religion is often associated with a level heightened consciousness. These may take the form of a mystical experience or escape from the mundane world, or an emotional element. In its extreme, religious experience may involve the usage of drugs. However, this would be more of a psychological experience, which is in stark contrast to the object-directed experience towards God in many religions. A religious experience is the dimension that many in the post modern west are searching for.

Other dimensions of religion many include functionaries, sacred places and objects, a common problem (i.e. sin or suffering), traditions, and targets and strategies. It is worth adding that one element that underlies these major elements (but is not necessary in itself) is that of religious symbols. These help the adherent to understand their faith by acting as an expression of particular religious truths and a reminder of certain aspects of the faith. An extended list is included at the end of this chapter.
 

The Idea of the Holy
    In all cultures up to the present, religion has had an absolutely indispensable and predominant part. Perhaps a keyword for understanding this phenomena is ‘holy’, that is, the recognition of a being or something totally outside of ourselves. In Rudolf Otto’s ‘The Idea of the Holy’ we find two strands from which we understand that which is holy; the rational or conceptual element, where we intellectually understand the awe inspiring elements of God, and the super-rational or non-rational (going beyond reason while presupposing it).
    This theory goes that there is a hidden predisposition within the human spirit which recognises that objective presence outside of ourselves where we understand ourselves as being finite dependent creatures. This experience is often characterised by a sense of awe, mystery and fascination and it is this unevoked experience that is behind the formation of our rational or conceptual understanding of the nature of that which is totally other. (i.e. God) Therefore, it is argued, religion is compounded of these rational and super-rational elements.
 

Religious Types

Religious types can be classified in these possible ways.

• Primal religion or animism - this is where there is no distinction between the physical and the supernatural. Both worlds are in balance.

• Polytheism - where humanity seeks to control the physical world by appealing to the many supernatural spirits who are seen to have control over particular areas.

• Mystical Religion - often associated with the pantheistic acceptance of the natural world in its wholeness as the supernatural.

• Legalistic religion - the sacred is totally separate from the world and can be influenced only by the following of a pattern of behaviour.

• Prophetic Religion - (true monotheism) reconciliation to the natural by faith in one personal Supernatural, who gives meaning to the natural and has a purpose beyond it.

The History of the study of Comparative Religion.
     The study of Comparative religion (being the historical, critical and comparative study) only came to popular public attention in the sixties and seventies of the nineteenth century. Previous to this, the overall attitude, particularly in the classical cultures, regarding the religious traditions of other peoples was one of indifference, though there were exceptions.

    I would suggest that much of the research that we take for granted, has come about as a result of dissatisfaction with the dominant religious tradition of the time (which was generally Christianity). It could even be said that some foreign religious traditions have been given a new lease of life through academic study of the religion. It has be said that Zen Buddhism has only survived due to interest from a group of Oxford scholars.

    It is of interest to note that in many ways it was the rise of Darwinism that launched the study of comparative religion. Anthropologically, religion was seen to fit within the evolutionary model. It was believed that, as people evolve, so to do religions; from being primitive to being modern; from containing an uncertain view regarding God, to pantheistic polytheism, to an ethical  monotheistic system, which just so happened to be equal to the teaching of the dominant religion in society at the time. This Darwinistic influence came to be a strong motive for study of other religions.