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weekly (Bhasin et al. bodybuilding competition Wrestling-and-bodybuilding. , 1996; Pope, Kouri, & Hudson, 2000; Tricker et al. , 1996). However even at that dose, the results of the cited studies are not consistent. bodybuilding competition Steroid effects. AAS exhibit a dose-response relationship. In general, higher doses mean greater effects both for anabolic response (Forbes, 1985) and psychological effects (Pope & Katz, 1994), as well as for desirable and undesirable effects. Although mood disorder symptoms appeared to increase as self-reported dose increased, even at the highest doses reported in empirical studies (e. bodybuilding competition Steroid powder. g. , > 1000 mg. per week in Pope & Katz, 1994) there is a wide variability in psychological symptoms - < 50% of the users exhibited disordered mood. In addition, in an AAS administration study, Su et al. (1993), noted that "Symptomatic differences did not, however, reflect differences in plasma anabolic steroid levels (p. 2763). " Dose is only one factor in the equation and drug administration, more than injection or ingestion, is also a behavioral event. Pre-existing characteristics and current psychological factors might influence not only decisions to use, and at high doses, but subsequent behavior and mood. Differences in dose cannot fully explain the complex psychological effects/AAS relationship. Selected dose may be confounded with several predisposing variables. Hence, another set of questions. Do certain individual characteristics presage AAS use, especially in supra-physiological doses, and the presence of psychological problems while using? For instance, do differences between empirical and experimental findings suggest that the individual characteristics that predate AAS use and expectations of drug effects must be accounted for? Such characteristics motivate the use of AAS or other performance enhancing substances, underlie the choice of substance and amount, and interact with those choices to produce the resulting behavior. Interaction with Endogenous TestosteroneAnother individual characteristic that may influence the psychological effects of AAS is the level of endogenous testosterone (T). Research finds a relatively consistent but variable relationship between endogenous T and dominant and aggressive behavior. These levels both influence and are influenced by behavior. Endogenous T might predict aggression, but successful aggression apparently also predicts increased endogenous T. Given this, the effects of adding exogenous T (AAS) to this equation must be considered. How might endogenous T and AAS interact to produce behavior and how might behavior subsequent to AAS use influence endogenous T and further behavior?Defining Psychological OutcomesThe final issue I will mention involves how the various psychological effects of AAS are defined and assessed. The relevant psychological factors listed above are assessed using a variety of psychometric instruments [e. g. , the Buss-Durke Hostility Inventory (Choi, Parrott, & Cowan, 1990); Multi-Dimensional Anger Inventory (Lefavi, Reeve, & Newland, 1990); Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (e. g. , Moss, Panzak, & Tarter, 1992); or Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire (e. g. , Yates, Perry, & Anderson, 1990)]. Some studies use behavioral analogues [e. g. , the Point Subtraction Aggression Paradigm, (Kouri, Lukas, Pope, & Oliva, 1995)].
Bodybuilding competition
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