by CAMERON McPHERSON SMITH
copyright 1996
SPECIALIZED ALPINE CLOTHING AND GEAR
Alpinists spend time in places not really conducive to human life. Alpine routes are normally cold, devoid of life, wind-scoured and icy. The most fundamental equipment the alpinist owns are proper clothes; consider standing beneath a route with a set of the latest tools and an unconquerable will -- stark naked. You won't get far. You've got to be clothed effectively. A lot of alpine clothing is specialized and there are a constellation of esoteric points to consider depending on your size, physiology, the type of climb you want to do; ad infinitum. The best way to make sense of it all is to be outfitted in as general-purpose and durable a get-up as possible. The following sections discuss clothing best suited to the general alpinist, interested in technical alpine climbing of all types. The alpinist's garb may generally be characterized as a layer system able to insulate the climber and cope with copious sweat from inside and wind and water from the outside, all in a system allowing total freedom of movement and durability. A tall order. Layering for Alpinists
The layering principle is at the core of extreme-temperature and foul-weather dressing. Rather than putting on a massive down-filled parka which will become unbearably hot when you start moving, you wear a number of layers which can be added to or stripped from as conditions and activity dictate. The simplest effective system consists of three basic layers; the wicking layer, the insulation layer and the shell. These are discussed below. The Alpine 'Wicking' Layer
The 'wicking layer' serves an absolutely essential function; the transport of your sweat away from your skin. You will sweat XXXX liters per hour on a normal day and XXXX liters per hour during heavy work, such as climbing. Let's say you do a 20-hour climb, car-to-car. You'll have sweated out XXXX liters by the end of the day ! If that sweat is not transported away from your skin you'll definitely be feeling clammy, if not chilled or frozen. In this case the 'good old days' were the 'bad old days'; climbers ended their climbs soaked as if they had been standing fully clothed in a shower all day. Add a sub-zero temperature and a little wind and you have a bone-chilling situation. On longer climbs people had to carry more dry clothing and spend precious time drying the wet clothing or, in the worst cases, spending a miserable icy night waiting to get going again in the morning and generate some body heat. Not only is it a complete drag to be soaked and cold, this condition may lead to cooling of the body core temperature and, ultimately, hypothermia. This may be considered a drag of another magnitude altogether. Luckily for modern climbers there are now a number of fabrics produced which will 'wick' some of the sweat away from your skin and to the outer surface of the fabric where it evaporates. Fig. XX illustrates the principle. Long-Johns
By long-johns I mean either a one-piece jumpsuit or standard two-piece suits. Long-johns are usually composed of some type of polyester. Patagonia's Capilene is very popular. It is also expensive. REI makes it's own brand of Expedition Weight Underwear (as do other companies; these are in contrast to Mid-Weight or Light-weight underwear), which I have tried and found to be good (particularly because it is inexpensive) but noticeably less efficient at wicking than Capilene. On the other hand, my partner Chiu prefers the REI Merkalon to the Capilene, so individual physiology is likely a factor here as well; he doesn't sweat as much as I do. Chiu also likes Thermax, by DuPont, and in Europe Helly-Hansen is popular. For the beginner, I would suggest buying an inexpensive first set and then moving on to more efficient wickers if you decide to keep at it.
One-piece suits are more comfortable than two-piece suits, but they are more expensive and if badly damaged are more costly to replace. The comfort comes from eliminating the waist-band. I find this an unnecessary and expensive luxury. I think an important advantage of the two-piece suit is that you can take off the top or bottom as conditions dictate. If one or the other get unexpectedly soaked, for example, this can be really important. In long-john tops, you need to choose between a button or zip neck. No big deal; I suggest a zip as it keeps out drafts. On tops also look for good cuffs which will keep the wrists warm, and ignore 'features' such as pockets, which are rather useless in the first layer. Wicking Socks and Gloves
Buried deep inside your double boots your feet can sweat more than you may expect, chilling your feet. Additionally, on extended climbs your feet can be sodden for a long time, producing other complications such as trench-foot. To prevent this, I strongly suggest wearing a wicking sock, a thin polyester liner which will keep your feet relatively dry. Your insulating socks will get wet, but they can be dried at night, and anyway, they should keep you relatively warm even if wet (see below). Any good outdoor store can provide you with wicking socks. The same goes for your hands. Inside your gloves you can sweat quite a bit, again chilling by conductive heat loss. Wicking gloves are made of the same thin polyester as socks. Some insulating gloves, however, such as the Capilene gloves by Patagonia, will wick as well as thin liner gloves. In many cases you can just wear these under your shell gloves to escape the cold. You may end up wearing wicking gloves if you decide to buy mittens rather than gloves, so that you can take the mitts off to work with your fingers. If you do, be sure to equip your mitts with leashes so that you don't drop them. Many specialized climbing gloves produced today come with a single wicking/insulating liner. These are discussed in the section on Shell Gloves and Mittens. For the coldest climbs you may want to wear neoprene socks. The thickness should be such that they fit well inside your boots, and they must not be so tight as to impair blood circulation, which is your primary defense against cold. The Alpine Insulation Layer
The insulation layer keeps you warm by trapping air between you and the garment. This air is warmed by your body and kept warm and inactive, or 'dead', by the garment. Wool has been popular for many years and many will stick by it until their dying day. This is fine, as wool is an excellent insulator and does a good job of keeping one warm if it gets wet. It is a fact that wool is adequate for many purposes; many great, cold climbs have been done in wool. It is also a fact that modern synthetic 'pile' fabrics are as efficient or more efficient than wool in insulation when wet or dry, and are lighter. Those who wear wool jerseys and smear themselves with goose-grease will probably not change to pile, and those who start with pile will likely not 'cross over' to wool and goose-grease. I suggest pile because it is lighter, often faster to dry, and some blends have better insulating properties than wool. If you are concerned with weight (and if you stick with alpinism for a while you probably will be), you'll probably end up with synthetic pile. There are too many pile blends to review here, but do beware of off-brand piles which may go 'flat' after a season. It's expensive to stick to the big names - Marmot, The North Face, Patagonia, Lowe, et., but worth it in the long run. The differences in quality, in my opinion, are negligible. Most of the piles produced for these companies come from the same mills, but each manufacturer has different weights and colors and designs and you may find yourself in a real predicament as to which pile jacket to buy first. My standard advice applies here as well; buy a simple jacket and work onward from there, depending on your individual needs and tastes. A good jacket will have a high neck-guard (a hood is superfulous), a heavy-duty zipper and perhaps a pair of pockets to keep your hands warm. Pile pants or bibs (or salopettes), illustrated in Figure XX, are good for extremely cold temperatures, but in most cases the wicking layer long-john bottoms will serve as a good insulator. When you get around to climbing in the colder ranges, you will likely wear bibs under your shell. In these cases, you may have to buy another shell which is big enough to allow you free movement. If you buy a medium-sized pair of bibs and wear wicking long-johns and pile bibs under them it's likely that you'll be too constricted to move as you'd like. On the other hand, if you buy a large jacket and bibs and spend most of your time climbing in moderate climes, you'll be frustrated by acres of nylon getting in the way. To avoid these problems, try on a number of shell/insulating layer combinations before you buy. If you don't, you'll curse yourself for all eternity when your $300 shell bibs split at the crotch. Think before you buy. One very basic consideration; for alpine conditions, cotton is out. Cotton has virtually no insulation properties, and those it has are wiped out when it gets wet. You may have been able to get away with flannels in Scouts, but those days are gone; you need to wear clothes which will insulate when wet. If they don't get wet from the outside, your sweat will moisten (or soak) them from the inside. There is no defense; your clothes will get wet and you must be properly attired to avoid hypothermia. Shell Gloves and Mittens
Your hands will get very cold. This is a fact regardless of whatever gloves you wear. There are very good gloves, and very bad gloves, and of course gloves which are fairly good, but none of them will keep your hands warm at all times. Luckily, with good or fair gloves you'll be able to keep warm most of the time. When you're placing protection, removing protection, belaying, or putting on or taking off your crampons, your hands get cold. I've found that only when I'm really moving, really pumping blood, do my hands stay warm. Personal physiology is also a factor here; some people just get cold hands faster than others. You'll soon find out if you're blessed with 'naturally' warm hands. Basically, there are gloves and mittens. Mittens keep your fingers together, containing body heat in one compartment. Gloves separate your fingers and are most often not as warm as mittens. Mittens, though, can be tough to work with - straps, buckles, knot-tying and working with protection are the real problems here. One solution is the trigger-finger design. This is a combination of glove and mitten in which the index finger has its's own compartment, allowing a precision grip when you need it. Lowe produces such a glove called the Dr. Strangeglove. Whatever type of handgear you buy, make sure it has a substantial cuff which keeps the wrist warm; a lot of blood pumps through your wrist, close to the skin and cold air, and you need to keep this covered. Dachstein mitts are made of tightly-knit wool and are practically windproof. They are also very warm and can shed a lot of water before they get sodden. They can be very useful for extra-cold climbs where you won't be getting too wet (everything will be frozen due to the low temperature). Beware ski gloves with a Gore-Tex or other waterproof/breathable membrane; such membranes usually blow out under the punishment of climbing. I suggest specialized climbing gloves even though ski gloves are often a relatively cheap alternative. Some notes on alpine climbing gloves. The expensive models produced by the big suppliers are generally well made, but many need to be seam-sealed before you climb. Also, the liners for some of these gloves are very warm and very thick; try them on when selecting ice axes to be sure it's not difficult to grip the shaft because of the thick gloves. Finally, try to get a pair of shell gloves with a tough palm/thumb/index finger covering. These areas wear out rather quickly under the rigors of belaying, rapelling and thrashing around on rock. Headgear
Probably the best alpine headgear is the balaclava, a hood-like garment illustrated in Figure XX. In most conditions you can wear it as shown in Figure XX(a), but when it gets warm, or hot, you can use it as a hat or headband, as in Figure XX(b). This is a versatile piece which can also be shrugged down around the neck and used as a scarf. The balaclava is snug-fitting and fits under the helmet, unlike a taller or thicker pile hat, which is too hot 99% of the time anyway. Woolen balaclavas are generally going to be too warm once you're moving, and the itching will probably drive you more insane than you already are (this may or may not be a concern of yours). A medium-weight balaclava which wicks sweat is excellent. Such a model - of Capilene - is made by Patagonia, and it's one of their items that I'm actually willing to break down and pay for. If you wear this when you sleep you'll be a damn sight warmer than without it (same applies for any headgear except maybe a baseball cap, which is pretty weird on an alpine route anyway). Pile headgear with a waterproof/breathable membrane are a bit of a luxury, but do stop wind dead in it's tracks. However, so will the hood of your jacket, and you don't need to buy that extra, or try to keep from losing it. The Alpine Shell : Jacket and Bibs
The shell keeps the wind and wet out, for which you'll be rather thankful. A good shell/insulation/wicking system can really turn the most horrendous conditions into something manageable, and sometimes even enjoyable. The most common and versatile combination is that of jacket and bibs. Bibs are basically pants with suspenders and a flap of material reaching to the chest, and perhaps partly up the back. These are illustrated in Fig. XX, with a number of important points noted. Though some one-piece suits are being produced today, the standard jacket-and-bib set-up is probably better for the aspiring beginner. The one-piece suit is generally lighter than a two-piece suit, and can be less costly than buying a separate jacket and bibs. The main drawback - and it is a crucial one - is that with a one-piece suit you cannot separate the jacket and bibs. For extended struggles this may be excellent, but for 90% of the climbs you do a two-piece suit is probably best. Sometimes you'll want to take off your jacket to cool off, sometimes your bibs. You may need to take off one component or the other to give to a disabled partner, or you may need to repair one while wearing the other. Really, for the beginner, I suggest a two-piece suit. Economics, though, may sway you towards the one-piece suits, which are becoming more popular and less expensive; if so, the notes regarding fit (below) should still apply. For shell components you need a waterproof/breathable system, such that the elements stay out and your sweat escapes. The most common is Gore-Tex. A number of other membranes are available, with variable performance and cost. Most systems today have seam-taped stitching; the 'tape' keeps moisture from entering through stitching holes. Almost all the waterproof-breathable clothes these days have taped seams, but watch out for those without this treatment. If you buy non-taped garments, you can attempt to stop the gaps with plastic seam-sealer goo, which you can buy at an outdoor supplier. The range of shell jackets, pants and bibs on the market today is mind-numbing in its variety and endless detail. It is my opinion that the market has gone totally berserk. Prices have gone through the roof - the big companies charge close to $400 for 'alpine climbing jackets' these days, which is an outrage. Scores of absolutely trivial 'features' have grown like tumors on otherwise very good designs. Look at a range of these garments. You'll find elaborate under-arm vents, waist-cinches, snow skirts, removable hoods, retractable hoods, zipper-and-velcro closures, angled pockets with snow-flaps, liners and a gallery of other nuisances. BUY THE SIMPLEST, MOST DURABLE SHELL YOU CAN FIND. I have climbed for more than ten years in a spartan Gore-Tex Wilderness Designs anorak (a pullover-type jacket). It has no snow skirt to keep out deep powder, no underarm vents, the hood is not removable and does not roll back to get 'out of my way', it has a nylon liner and has one large pocket on the belly and is lighter than any durable climbing jacket on the market today. I'm not mentioning this as someone blindly enamored with some archaic design; I'm saying it to tell you that, in my experience, I've not needed all the modern 'features'. This jacket, to me, is the 'ultimate', not one of the recent over-designed beasts. Even though my jacket is getting a bit threadbare, I'm having trouble finding a replacement at a reasonable cost. The gadgets and hype are simply too much. Having said this, consider the following points when you're looking for a SIMPLE shell jacket and bibs. Are they cut so that, when wearing a pile jacket and long-john bottoms, you can still move easily? Try doing some pull-ups at the store (perhaps not in the changing booth). Also try some push-ups (ditto !); does the shell bind, or tighten on your elbows? How does the jacket feel if you reach straight up as high as possible? When you do this, do the bibs ride up and tighten on your crotch, restricting you in any way? Can you tuck the jacket in under a harness so that the fabric won't ride up and cover your central harness carabieners and your tie-in? This can be infuriating if you're always trying to tuck the jacket back in. Does the hood fit over a helmet and still allow you to rotate your head ? Would the hood be better under a helmet? Can the hood be cinched down so that your whole face is covered except a slit for the eyes? This can be really useful in a nasty storm. Can you put on boots and/or skis without removing the bibs (this is accomplished with full-length side zips)? Are the zippers big and easy to clear of snow or ice, or are they dinky little jobs which will clog easily? Will snow or rain get in through the zippers, or are they covered with storm-flaps? One of the best things about the anorak design is that, lacking a front zipper and 'storm-flaps', it saves weight and is less likely to let in the elements - snow, sleet, rain -- whatever. Are the bibs designed so that you can answer the call of nature without removing your harness? You probably won't need a lot of pockets, so skip the models with inner pockets, chest pockets and the like. These are just a bother. In my experience, Marmot makes an excellent pair of bibs, but their 'top-of-the-line' Alpinist jackets are over-designed, too expensive and too heavy. The same goes for The North Face. Consider these companies' simpler, lighter models. Whatever you do, DON'T BELIEVE THE HYPE. Over-design is the scourge of modern climbing clothing and equipment. Balance the benefits of modern technology with realistic requirements. Do you really need to pay extra so that you can roll the hood of your jacket into it's own little pouch (which you'll have to fumble with frozen fingers)? I think not. The sad fact is that our choices are limited by the (over) designers and marketing bean-counters. In the 1972 Chouinard Equipment catalog there is a quote from Albert Einstein which suits the current situation: 'A perfection of means and confusion of aims seems to be our main problem.' Miscellaneous Gear
A number of items the alpinist uses are common to the rock-climber and mountaineer but their needs are not always the same. I suggest picking through the market variety in search of simple and durable items you can work with frozen gloved fingers or mittens. Gaiters
Gaiters are basically gauntlets for your boots - they keep rocks, snow and ice out from between your foot and boot; not a comfortable place to transport these materials. Many types of gaiters are made these days, and most are adequate. The main choices you'll have to make will be between the different lengths and thicknesses of gaiters available. Some are short, being just a tube fitting around the ankle. Good for a little scramble, but most alpine routes need a bit more. Others are longer, covering the laces of boot and reaching up to your knee. These uninsulated models are what I suggest. Still other types cover the whole boot, sometimes with a rubber rand around the lower portion to help in rock-climbing situations. These 'super-gaiters' cover the boot and are sometimes insulated; probably overkill for most alpine climbs you do close to home. They do, however, have their place in extreme situations, such as in Alaska or the Himalaya, or the Canadian Rockies in winter. When buying, keep in mind that a velcro closure is a heck of a lot easier to operate with frozen fingers than a zipper. Zippers can also get clogged with ice or snow, generating much misery. Sooner or later your gaiters will end up in pretty rough shape - they take a lot of wear and you can't expect them to hold up to crampons, rock, ice and hard windcrust snow indefinitely. You can make major repairs with that most wonderful of repair resources, duct tape. The strap which goes under your boot can be replaced with heavy nylon weave, or even wire, after it eventually disintegrates, as shown in Figure XX. The Harness and the Gear Sling
Guess what ? The variety of harnesses on the market today is enormous, and the details of design are mind-boggling. It is worth putting a lot of time and considerable research in before investing in a decent harness. I climbed for many years in a simple diaper-seat harness made from a long loop of 1" tubular webbing. This worked but was not exactly comfortable in longer falls or for hanging belays, and I began to fear major anatomical damage from this totrure device. Eventually I bought a giant Chouinard harness and then, for alpine work, a very lightweight but durable Chouinard / Black Diamond Alpinist harness. Not only is this harness light, simple in design and simple to use, it can be put on or removed while you're wearing boots, crampons or skis, which is very handy in cold places. Additionally, this harness is relatively inexpensive, coming in at around $40, which is considerably cheaper than most harnesses. The UIAA (an international climbing standards organization - see the Glossary), suggests the use of a chest harness. Not many American climbers have taken up the suggestion, though. This is because many believe that the chest harness may injure one's back in a bad fall. However, the chest harness may actually PREVENT you from breaking your back, by preventing you from folding in half backwards in a fall. Figure XX illustrates these occurrences. The choice is yours. Since you usually don't carry as many pieces of protection on alpine climbs as on rock climbs, you can usually do without a specialized gear sling. If you do need one, in most cases you can skip the fancy pile-lined jobs and just use a regular runner, which can later be used as a sling for protection if needed. Often you won't even need the sling and all your gear can be racked on the gear loops on your harness. No gear loops on the harness you bought ? Fear not. Don't bother with buying the 'racking kits' ! A bit of plastic tubing threaded with a strand of old kernmantle or thin perlon will do. If your harness doesn't even have the little tabs for the attachment, you can either sew them on or just sew on gear loops made from rolled 1/2" tubular webbing or just perlon, as shown in Figure XX. Really, there are plenty of alternatives to buying the gear racking 'kits' and you may as well save your money to put it towards more expensive and important items like boots and axes, which you shouldn't skimp on. If you're going the 'do-it-yourself' route, be sure that your sewing is secure. See the section on Equipment Modification for more tips on harnesses and racking. Every climber has their own racking arrangement and it's not useful for me to go into the subject at length here. However, be sure your system is SIMPLE, easily organized and quick to access. There is nothing - and I mean NOTHING - worse than extending a desperate struggle because you can't get that damned screw off a heavily-loaded sling. Headlamp
You will eventually need a headlamp, if not for night climbs (sometimes a good idea if the snow / ice is too slushy in the day) then for some forced bivouac or a night-time descent, or even just night-time aid climbing practice sessions. There are a variety of headlamps available, but in my experience Petzl makes the best headlamps . These may be powered by a single 4.5v European flat battery or -with an adapter- by three standard AA batteries. The flat batteries should be available wherever you buy the headlamp. Remember to always carry a spare bulb taped in the lamp-housing; this will save you a lot of trouble if the first bulb blows out. You can buy a number of bulb types. Extremely bright halogen bulbs are a revelation if you're used to standard bulbs, but they are expensive (c.$6.00 each) and only last about 6 hours or so, depending on the battery. You might want to pick a few of these up before a really hairy night ascent, but for most purposes they're just too expensive and require changing too often. Changing bulbs in the field is a drag because you'll have to take off your gloves and work in the cold. Goggles
Goggles can save you from snow-blindness, and this in turn can save your entire trip. Goggles are also useful if snow is falling in blankets and you want to keep it off your eyes or glasses. Of course you'll have to wipe snow off your goggles but that's better than having it freeze to your glasses. Goggles can also protect your eyes from freezing wind, which can glue your eyelids together in a brief moment.
Snow and ice being - generally - white, they are highly reflective. A little sunlight can turn a glacier or snow-slope into a blinding expanse, and you don't feel snow-blindness until after you've got it. Let me assure you, you don't want it. It feels like having your eyeballs filled with hot grains of sand and randomly lanced by white-hot needles. It can make for a very bad day and will cost you a night's sleep, which can make for an even worse next day, assuming you'll be functional at all. Ski goggles are fine. If you wear glasses, you can even get goggles which will fit over them, or you can use a knife to cut away slots for your spectacle stems. Make sure you get the highest possible UV/IR (ultraviolet/infra-red) protection; colored plastic is cheap, but worse than useless - it fools your pupils into dilation, so they get more UV/IR bombardment than if you were squinting. Not very helpful. If you carry dark goggles, you'll have a hard time seeing if wearing them on a night climb. Three solutions; carry two lenses (clear and tinted) or carry one photosensitive lens (available these days) or carry one lightly-tinted lens. I find the photosensitive lens the best solution - you don't have to change it, which would be waste of time. One last note - many times goggles are not necessary. If you're anticipating gray weather, or climbing at night, it's not worth taking them along. However, if you're going to be on a glacier and the weather is supposed to be clear and sunny, or if you plan on an extended trip, goggles are essential. Remember that even if you're climbing at night you may be descending a glacier or snowfield in the brilliant morning sun, which is really painful. Plan carefully. Pulley
A pair of the lightweight pulley rings, shown in Figure XX, are always attached to my harness. In crevasse rescues, impromptu hauling sessions and the like they can speed everything up and save a lot of energy and frustration. For most alpine needs these are fine, but if you're off to do an alpine wall route, take at least one (stronger) machined pulley of the type shown in Figure XX. Helmet
WEAR A HELMET ! This topic is very simple. Few alpinists climb without a helmet, and those who do so are living on borrowed time. Too often there is flying ice or rock and a single piece could easily destroy your skull. A cavalier attitude won't keep the rocks or ice or ice tools off your head. It WILL happen to you, eventually, so be prepared. In alpine climbs it is possible in some cases to take very long but survivable 'falls' which are actually slides down slick, low-angle slopes. These 'falls' are long in duration and involve tumbling and skidding - a helmet may keep an ice axe pick, crampon, picket, screw or other sharp item from being inserted - not gently, mind you - into your head. You can also get a crampon or pick in the head if you your leader falls on top of you. When choosing a helmet, get one that is lightweight (you can compare the weights in catalogs), adjustable (so that you can put it on over a thick or thin hat, or none at all), has attachments for a headlamp (you'll be wearing one soon enough) and is UIAA approved. A non-approved helmet might be lighter but is of no use; it will shatter and you will die. Do not neglect or skimp on this piece of equipment. A brief review of any issue of the American Alpine Club's Accidents In North American Mountaineering will convince you of the necessity for a helmet in alpine climbing. If you're making the natural transition from rock-climbing to alpinism, you'll soon get used to the helmet and it will eventually become a friend rather than a hindrance. Backpack
Here we go again; the current market of alpine climbing packs is enormous. And the solution, again; GET THE SIMPLEST, MOST DURABLE AND LIGHTEST PACK POSSIBLE. Forget - totally - the snazzy zipper-pulls, plastic crampon patches, double-strapped models with inflatable hip belts and internal aluminum or plastic frames. These are made for expedition-style climbing (though some claim otherwise), where you're going to be wearing the pack with a heavy load for days on end. In most alpine climbs you will go light, so an elaborate hip-belt and suspension system are not needed. A pack of about 2000-2800 cubic inches is probably the best for most 1-3 day alpine climbs, and even these, with careful rigging, can be made to hold many more days' food and supplies (see the section on Equipment Modification). A pack slightly too large is better than one slightly too small; when you eventually reach for longer adventures, at least you won't have to buy a new pack right away. The features to look for in an alpinist's pack: two ice axe loops (or an ice axe shaft tube), an extendible top pouch (if not available, see the section on Equipment Modification), crampon fasteners (either on top or on the back; if you really need a patch to stop them from wearing at the fabric, rig one with three layers of duct tape rather than pay extra), a reinforced bottom (you'll find it difficult to be delicate with your pack on rough terrain), decent shoulder straps with a chest fastener (so the pack cannot slide off your shoulders), a slim, tube-like design (so you can move your arms and elbows in total freedom) and a helmet cord (fashion from shock-cord if not available). Though you will not be carrying expedition loads with a normal alpine pack, get one with at least a serviceable hip belt; you must be able to ride the load on your hips rather than your shoulders. Some good, small packs have a back stiffened not with an internal frame, but with a pad of foam. This is excellent - it supports light alpine loads, keeps pointy objects from poking you in the back and, if the pack is empty, it may be used as an insulating foot-rest if your sleeping mat is short. Look for a pack with a good snow collar; this is a tube of fabric at the top of the pack which can be cinched down to prevent snow from getting inside the pack. See Figure XX. If the top of the pack is extendible, the snow collar can also be filled with more gear. Finally, a good haul loop is advisable so that the pack can be dragged up more strenuous sections. The haul loop must be bombproof if you want to avoid the unthinkable - a precious colored dot twirling downwards into the mist... A lightweight pack is essential. It's no good trimming ounces here and there only to load your spartan rack into a five-pound mountaineer's pack. For most climbing I suggest a pack weighing two pounds or less. Three is, in my opinion, the result of too much gadgetry, however good the design. There are a number of ways to improve your pack cheaply; see the section on Equipment Modification. Your best bet will be a small, simple pack with an extendible top, ice axe loops, a crampon bungee-cord and a decent hip-belt -- and little else. Altimeter / Barometer
An altimeter / barometer can be used to determine your elevation and make some predictions about the weather, and is often considered one of the 'ten essentials' (see comments in the following section). I believe, however, that in many cases it is not necessary. If you're climbing in a good-weather window you can usually determine your position by thinking about where you are on the route. A good familiarity with the terrain (via photos and direct observation) is needed here. Of course, in a whiteout descent, where you have no landmarks for orientation, the altimeter can help you to avoid such obstacles as cliffs. The barometer can help with weather prediction, but this can often be done (rather coarsely) by looking at the clouds (see Appendix A : Mountain Weather). Overall, I'd say that a barometer/altimeter is useful on longer expeditions where you're more isolated and where weather prediction and position determination are likely to be very important. Otherwise, you can skip this item. The digital models are, in my opinion, gimmicks. Map and Compass
Learn how to use them efficiently. Though many times it will be possible to climb without them, they can make long, complex approaches and descents more predictable. Personally, I carry them very infrequently when close to home, in areas I am very familiar with. The less familiar I am with the terrain, however, the more often I carry the map and compass. Still, being an advocate of complete self-suffiency, I sometimes will leave map and compass behind and trust my skill at decision-making. Such adventures are always the most dangerous; they are also the most rewarding. Saftey and The 'Ten Essentials' Fallacy
Some outdoor-types insist that there is some magical number of items (often ten) that you should never climb without. I ignore such lists, knowing precisely what I need to make an ascent. I suggest you consider what you deem is the safety margin you want to pursue. For example, for some a first aid kit is a two-pound bag with bandages, splints and a variety of other items. Fair enough. For others, the kit may consist of some pain-killers and a giant bandage which can be cut up into smaller segments. Some climbers never take a compass or map, the route and descent being so direct and obvious that getting lost is effectively impossible - on other climbs, these should definitely not be left behind. The key is to balance your saftey standard with your needs. One thing you must not do, however, is expect that if you are in really dire condition, you can call for rescue, perhaps with a radio or other signal device (flare, mirror, whistle, etc.). The alpinist must go into the mountains with the mentality that there is no prospect of assistance; that any problem you encounter, you will have to deal with. You are responsible: the mountain does not 'do' anything in order to harm you -- you were just in the wrong place at the wrong time and you have only yourself to blame for your situation. Even registering for a climb can give you a psychological crutch which may undermine your saftey standard. Rescuers are called upon to risk their necks for yours: by registering for a climb you are not just 'improving' your chances of survival, you are potentially setting the fuse for other people to risk their lives. Think about it.
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