by CAMERON McPHERSON SMITH
copyright 1996
ALPINE SNOW CLIMBING
Like ice, snow is a product of the natural world, and the variety of snow types is effectively infinite. As an alpinist you must learn to distinguish between many different types of snow; which are good for climbing, which are avalanche-prone, which are impossible to cross without skis or snow-shoes and so forth. You must balance this wide knowledge with a grasp of the principles which generate different snow conditions. Observe the different types of snow you encounter on different climbs; you'll soon be able to tell a lot about conditions by just looking at the various ripples, drifts and other snow features in alpine terrain, and you may soon begin to predict what sort of snow lies on what particular terrain. And then, just as you get confident and cocky, you'll run into something completely unpredictable and seemingly unearthly in it's defiance of the 'laws' you've come to rely on. Nature at work. You must always be learning. Snow Dangers
The main dangers of snow are that it might avalanche, massed clumps of it may collapse at any time and that it might conceal crevasses or other holes, such as moats. Such dangers are generally illustrated in Figure XX. Avalanche
One of the most important alpine skills is to be able to assess avalanche danger. This is not something you can learn quickly or from a book. Read Avalanche Safety for Skiers and Climbers by Tony Daffern as a start, and apply that theoretical knowledge to real terrain. When you can't get out to the mountains, look at photographs of mountains in climbing magazines; try to determine where avalanches are likely to occur. Look at the marked routes on the mountains; did the climbers avoid particular areas? Perhaps they did, perhaps the didn't. Ask yourself, 'where would I climb, in theory, on this mountain?'. While most avalanches occur within a few days of major snowfall, and on particular slopes, most is not all. Some climbers are caught in avalanches they simply couldn't predict in their situation or with their level of knowledge. Others climb into dangerous terrain, knowingly or not, and start the avalanche themselves. This is a serious business. I include the following guidelines with some reservation; you may be tempted to assume that if you can deal with these points, you can avoid danger. This is not the case. Get practical experience and never let your guard down; avalanches can strike suddenly from 'nowhere'. Avalanches are basically the parting of two layers of snow such that the upper layer, for whatever reason, is no longer bonded to the lower layer and begins to slide with gravity. Consider a heavy fall of new dry snow onto a hard, firmly settled old snow surface. With enough new snow accumulation the bond between the two layers will part, and the new snow will slide on top of the old snow surface. This is the basic principle to keep in mind. If you can dig a trench to examine a cross-section of the snow you're on, it may be possible to identify such layering. Read Tony Daffern's book for more on this type of investigation, and tailor that knowledge to your situation on a climb. Figure XX illustrates some generic terrain and general points on avalanche danger. An avalanche can occur on slopes from about 15 to 50 degrees in steepness. Most occur in the range between 30 to 50 degrees. Below 30 there is often too much friction to keep an avalanche going if it starts, and above 50 degrees most slopes will slough off new snow rather than accumulate it in thick blankets to avalanche later. An avalanche may occur during a heavy snowfall or at any time during the next one to three days. Do not assume that if the weather has been calm for a long time there won't be an avalanche. An avalanche may occur at any time during or after a large accumulation of snow has been blown onto a slope by the wind. An avalanche may also occur when the appropriate slope is subjected to an increase in temperature (this may also trigger cornice and ice-tower, or serac , falls). Figure XX illustrates these conditions. Avalanches can occur on almost any terrain. However, ridge-crests and buttresses which are so steep that snow doesn't have much chance of accumulating are often safer than other terrain, such as gullies, bowls or blank slopes. This is why buttresses and ridges often make 'safer' climbs than faces on which snow can accumulate or which are scoured by avalanches dropping down from above. In storms where the rate of snowfall is relatively uniform it may be possible to time these avalanches and plan your movement accordingly (though this is a pretty desperate measure). While the extreme crest of a ridge is often safe from immediate avalanche danger, snow beneath the lee-side of ridge-crests may accumulate with wind to produce wind-slab avalanches. See Figure XX. Avalanches can blast down a face with terrific speed and force. Stay off - and out from under - lee-slopes. Wet snow avalanches can engulf a climber like a river, then freeze solid, entombing them in a slurry which hardens like quick-drying cement. This is no way to check out; learn about avalanche terrain and avoid it like the plague. These notes are only an introduction to a nebulous and complex topic, though with time avoiding dangerous avalanche terrain, in route-planning and on the mountain, should become almost automatic to the alpinist; but not so automatic that one works with a 'formula' mentality. Always consider the application of your theory to the particular circumstances at hand. Avalanche Safety for The Alpine Team of Two
If you are forced to cross potential avalanche terrain (and be certain, first, that there is no other way) there are a few precautions you can take. First, determine the shortest possible path across the danger area. Next, unfasten all the buckles on your backpack. In the tumbling mass of an avalanche you may need to cast off your pack to stay 'afloat'. Try to climb under or near large rock or ice outcrops which may deflect avalanches from above, or at least provide some shelter. Some climbers carry an 'avalanche cord', a long (say 30m) red or black string tied to their harness. On the way across the avalanche terrain, the string just drags behind, and if you're avalanched and buried, some of the cord may remain on the surface and be spotted by your partner, giving them some idea of where you are. Obviously this is a pretty thin proposal, but it's better than nothing. Go across the slope one at a time. It's probably better not to belay unless you can get the world's greatest bombproof anchors. Consider that your anchors will have to resist the force of tons of snow dragging at your partner. If they rip out you will be sucked into the avalanche by your partner. If the slope is so exposed and dangerous that you need a rope in case you fall, you're in a tight spot and need to do some thinking. Memorize all of this, read more and keep your mind flexible; adapt to the situation at hand. If you're the unlucky one and get avalanched on the way across the slope, the first thing to do is yell so that your partner, who may not be looking at that moment, knows something is wrong. At the same time, try to throw off your backpack. If things get worse you won't want it dragging you down. It might be a disaster to lose your pack in a remote alpine area, but at least if you survive you can improvise and have some chance at survival. The standard advice now is to attempt to 'swim' upwards through the snow, trying to stay near the surface and trying to get to the side of the avalanche rather than staying in the middle of the chaos. Adapt as the situation demands. If you feel yourself going under you need to protect your airway; close your mouth and cover it with your hands. When you come to a stop, immediately try to thrust your arms forward to create an air cavity. If you are squashed down and cannot move arms or legs or anything, start breathing slowly and evenly and hope that your partner was paying attention. If it's possible to move, try to get oriented. Let a bit of drool creep out of your mouth and note where in slides to indicate what is up and what is down. If possible, start digging upwards. Try to stay optimistic; at least you've survived the avalanche thus far - your neck may just as easily have been broken moments ago. Keep digging. Perhaps you will soon emerge on the surface. Perhaps not. If your partner is avalanched try to keep an eye on them as they go down. Consider that another avalanche may come down this very same path before you rush out to start searching. If you lose track of the avalanched climber, and after a brief search you see no sign of them or their avalanche cord, keep an eye out for any of their climbing gear (such as their backpack) which may give you an idea of where they are. If there are just two of you and one is buried, things are going to be grim, particularly if you haven't brought along an avalanche probe of some sort (a long thin pole, such as a telescoping ski pole) which can be used to poke down into the snow in hopes of finding the buried person. If you have to start probing, do it systematically, not at random. Pick the most likely area and start probing in some efficient pattern. You may use a tent-pole if you've got one and the snow has not yet 'set up' too hard, If you find your partner you're going to have to start digging, quickly. If you have a shovel, use it. If not, perhaps your helmet will work. Work as fast as possible; after about two hours the chances that the buried person will still be alive are minimal. Figure XX illustrates some of the points outlined above. Avoid getting wiped out by avalanche by totally avoiding avalanche terrain. The standard two-person alpine party just can't hope to stand up to burial, rescue and all of the complications; avalanches have the upper hand by a long shot. Do not trifle with avalanche danger. If the route you've been dreaming for was heavily laden with snow last night, keep dreaming. The mountain will be there when you come back later. Develop the patience to retreat repeatedly from a route when your common sense tells you to; you may have to wait years for a particular route, but that's better than risking it all because you're impatient; go climb another route ! Cornices and Crevasse Bridges
On ridges, and beneath them, one must be aware of cornices, blobs or other formations of snow which generally form on the lee side of the ridge due to wind. These may break free in periods of warming, or they may be broken off by the weight of climbers on the ridge. Unfortunately for those who like to predict things, cornices also break off seemingly at random as structural weaknesses finally succumb to gravity. If you're on a corniced ridge, stay well clear of the edge of the cornice which hangs out over the side of the ridge. A useful rule of thumb is to consider that if a cornice does come off, it will be cleaved off at an angle roughly equal to that of the ridge supporting it. See Fig. XX for the principle here. Remember, however, that this is a rule of thumb, and that cornices may break off well back from the predicted line of cleavage. Try to climb well below the line of cleavage. As the flank of the ridge steepens, however, this gets to be difficult and dangerous, and you will have to make a compromise. Crevasses, the cracks in glaciers, come in all sizes, from little incisions beneath your boots to enormous chasms a hundred feet or more in width, with dimensions that simply dwarf the human scale. Crevasses or other unusual holes may be hidden by a light cap of snow, however, so you must take precautions on glaciers. See the chapter on Glacier Travel for the proper procedures for roping up, traveling, belaying and rescuing on glaciers, and, again, don't just head out thinking that this book has 'prepared' you for the dangers. Belaying in Snow and Snow Anchors
Belaying on snow can be much more comfortable than on rock or ice. You can sometimes cut a giant bucket seat with a pair of axes or your helmet or a shovel, plop down inside it and enjoy the (relative) comfort for a change. Still, in more difficult terrain, you should have good anchors first, however secure your bucket feels. The direct belays described for ice and rock are pretty rare except in the best snow, with the axe-belay (see the following sections). Snow anchors just usually aren't bombproof enough. The cutting of a belay seat or belay-stance in snow is not just for comfort. When the snow is really loose and your anchors are poor you can substantially increase your belay safety by settling deep into a snow-seat and using your body as a giant anchor. This is, of course, only good for the leader belaying a second up a slope as the load will pull the belayer downwards and into the snow seat, not upwards. If you can get in some standard snow anchors, clip to them with equalized slings. You may find that your rope becomes so frozen and caked with snow that it won't fit through your belay device. You might be forced to use the Munter Hitch (see Figure XX). In the worst case (no anchors) you may be forced to just use a hip belay, in which the rope is passed around your hips (under your backpack so that if loaded it won't just slip up over your head) as shown in Figure XX. On easier sections you may want to belay with one of a few basic techniques (such as the infamous boot-axe belay) illustrated in Figure XX. On more technical alpine ascents, snow is often only encountered on the approach or descent; thus you have to decide whether carrying any snow anchors is worth the effort. If you're going to spend any time on a glacier, at least one picket (carried by the second climber so they can use it as a rescue anchor) should be the minimum. If there's no glacier and you only expect snow on the approach or descent, you may decide to forfeit special snow anchors altogether and improvise with bollards (see below); if so, make sure you have spent a good practice session or two getting to know the variables in bollard construction and evaluation. Natural Snow Anchors : The Bollard
A snow bollard is an anchor cut from the snow rather than an item placed in the snow. The bollard (or mushroom) supports a load by having the load distributed over a large area. Figure XX illustrates the principle. This is basically the same as an ice bollard, which is described in the section Natural Ice Anchors. If you can place any other type of snow anchor, I would suggest that you do because bollards can be dangerously deceptive, giving the appearance of a good anchor and failing under a real load. Nevertheless, if you are out of gear and need an anchor in snow, the bollard is one of the main options. Bollards are often used as belay anchors and in good conditions may be used as rappel anchors. To cut a bollard, find some snow which is deep, relatively well consolidated and free of cracks or other obvious weaknesses. Now, using the adze of your axe, chop or scoop a fat, roughly teardrop-shaped moat into the snow, with the narrower end of the teardrop pointing towards the direction of the load. The dimensions of the bollard must be dependent on the consistency of the snow. In very hard, packed snow, it may measure about 3 feet in diameter. In loose snow, where you may be desperate, you may have to cut a bollard 6 feet wide, or larger. The moat should cut under the bollard somewhat so that the rope or sling will not slip up and over the top, but not so deep that the undercut weakens the bollard. In some cases this is a fine line to discern, so, again, I suggest you spend a day on a glacier trying all of these methods and getting accustomed to using them in all sorts of snow conditions. Once the bollard is cut, loop a long sling (or, if rappelling, the rope) around the bollard and clip into the sling. Figure XX illustrates the cutting and general dimensions of snow bollards. In most cases it's a good idea to reinforce the bollard by placing some barrier between the rope and the snow so that the rope does not constrict under the load and slice the top off the bollard. A pair of ice axes may be used, or a backpack, or skis. Whatever you use, try to keep as much of the rope from contact with the snow as possible. Figure XX illustrates a number of reinforcement ideas. If you're rappelling off a snow bollard you can reinforce it with a bit of your sleeping mat, chopped off with an axe. Not very pretty, but it's better than leaving an ice tool. The main thing to remember about snow bollards is that it's difficult to estimate their strength. Test a bollard by applying a load to the sling. If the rope or sling digs in and undercuts the bollard too far, cut a new one: the next load on that bollard may slice off the top. If the sling or rope remains firm, and the bollard seems to be ok, reinforce it anyway with a pair of axes or something else. You can't be too safe with bollards. Artificial Snow Anchors : Pickets and Deadmen
There are two basic ready-made tools for snow protection: the picket and the deadman. Both work on the same principle - that an item with a large surface area buried in snow will be resistant to pull in a certain direction because of the snow in front of the item. This concept is best illustrated in Fig. XX. The picket is a length of metal (usually aluminum) with a t-shaped (or sometimes tubular) cross-section. The picket is thrust into the snow until most of it is buried, and then clipped with a carabiener or tied off with a sling, and the rope clipped through this as with any other piece of protection. If you fall, the weight comes onto the picket and, if you have properly placed it, and the snow is quite well consolidated, it will act as an anchor. See Fig. XX. Placing pickets is relatively easy once you know the principle; you can place them in many types of snow, though only a few types will really provide enough resistance to act as an effective anchor. To place a picket you simply place it at about 5 degrees back from perpendicular to the snow surface, and away from the load, and then push it down into the snow. Fig. XX illustrates the principle. Sometimes you may need to push quite hard, or even use a hammer to drive the picket home. In these cases the snow is quite hard and it's likely that the picket will be relatively secure. On the other hand, when you can push the picket in with just a little pressure, or just drop it into the snow, it's likely that the snow is too loose to really provide any support. In this case it might be worth digging beneath the snow to find rock or ice for another type of anchor. If the snow is nicely consolidated, but the picket 'bottoms out' and hits ice, or rock, before the entire length is buried, you can tie it off with a sling, as you would a piton or a screw. Use a girth-hitch rather than just looping a sling over the picket, as shown in Figure XX. Some pickets are drilled with lightening holes which may be clipped through with a carabiener. These are easier to 'tie off' by simply clipping the hole closest to the snow surface. Doing this saves a sling and is safer than using the girth-hitch, which can slide upwards and off of the picket in some cases. See Fig. XX. However, if the closest hole is 1" or more from the snow, tie it off with a sling. One the picket is placed, remember that if you are moving upward above it, rope drag may pull it up and out of it's slot; the picket has no resistance in this direction of pull and can easily come out. If it looks like this may happen it's a good idea to clip a sling to the picket to relieve some of the rope drag. In this case, you can save a carabiener by girth-hitching the picket directly through a clip-in hole and then clipping to the rope with a carabiener on the sling. These alternative methods are illustrated in Fig. XX. If you find it impossible to remove the picket with an upward pull on the carabiener, you can slot an axe through the carabiener and either lever it out or pull (don't jerk) with both arms, as shown in Figure XX. Be careful that you don't suddenly dislodge the picket suddenly and lose your balance. The most common other snow anchor is the deadman. This is a plate of metal (again, usually aluminum) which is buried in the snow such that it will dig deeper into the snow as a pull is applied to the clip-in cable. See Fig. XX. Placing a deadman properly takes a bit more practice than placing a picket. See Fig. XX for the procedure. You first find a suitable area of snow, preferably well consolidated. Many times there is a layer of relatively loose new snow on top of a layer of more consolidated snow. In this case, clear off some of the surface snow. You then use an axe to cut a 't-shaped' slot in the snow to the dimensions of your deadman and cable. The deadman plate must be tilted about 30 or 40 degrees back from perpendicular to the snow surface so that when weight is applied it will bury itself deeper into the snow rather than shear out (if the angle is to great) or jump out (if the angle is too low). Now you drop the deadman into the slot and clip into the cable. You must be sure that the weight will come onto the lower half of the clip-in cable; this is what pulls the deadman deeper into the snow. Stress applied to the upper cable will yank the deadman up and out of it's slot, though this is avoided on most models by having a longer upper cable. See Fig. XX. The best way to test the deadman is to pull on the clip-in cable. If the deadman rises up in the slot, you should remove the deadman and cut the cable-slot deeper so that the lower cable is not on any sort of a hump. See Fig. XX. To properly set the deadman, give the cable a few firm tugs. Improvised Snow Anchors
If you have to protect a section of snow, and you don't have a picket or a deadman, and can't cut a bollard, you can improvise using the deadman/picket principle; bury an object or objects in the snow and rely on their surface area to prevent them from coming out with a pull. The most obvious items to place are your ice axes. If you can shove the axes into the snow about perpendicular to - or slightly tilted back from - the surface, up to the head, and tie them off with slings (or their wrist-loops), you may have anchors which are, at least, better than nothing. The strength of the axe belay depends on the consistency of the snow (sometimes it is perfect and sometimes it is treacherous), the angle of the shaft in relation to the load and surface, and whether or not the belayer leans on the head of the axe or not (if it is a simple axe belay). This is advisable. See Figure XX. The improvised-axe belay is often used on relatively easy snow pitches where you're belaying not so much to stop major falls, but to catch a slip where the consequence may be a long and deadly tumble down an endless slope. The leader leads off, protecting the pitch with deadmen or pickets, sets the axes into the snow and belays off of them. When you do this, remember that a pair of axe shafts are probably not as secure as a good dead-man or picket, and advise your partner to climb with caution. On hearing this, they probably will. You can improve the strength of the axe-picket belay by using two axes in the 'T' configuration, as shown in Figure XX. If you cannot spare your axes and need a snow anchor, consider burying some other large object. You can bury a ski (place it perpendicular to the load, and dig a t-shaped trench first to accommodate the ski and the sling) and tie it off with a sling, or perhaps a backpack. To bury a backpack requires a rather large hole, and you probably won't do this unless things get pretty desperate (whatever you bury, make sure the wall of the pit is angled such that the item is pulled deeper into snow and not up and out of it, as shown in Figure XX). Still, consider every option; what are you carrying that might serve as a large surface ? Perhaps you can use your helmet, if you can rig it securely with a sling (do not clip the straps on the helmet - they will rip straight out). Of course, also consider cutting a bollard, as described above. Look for natural features which may help; a 'ready-made' bollard (be extremely cautious with these !), a bump of rock projecting from the snow, around which you can cut a moat, or perhaps you can dig under the snow for ice or rock, or at least firm snow. Remember that any buried item attached with a sling must have a sling-moat cut so that if the anchor is loaded it won't be jerked up and out of the snow like a poorly-placed deadman. Figure XX illustrates a number of improvised snow anchors. For some climbs where you expect long and dangerous snow descents, consider making a few lightweight pickets at home. These can be made from 11/2" diameter aluminum tubing in 2- or 3-foot lengths (or more-consider the consistency of the snow you expect to encounter). They weigh little and can cost nothing if you scavenge them from a construction-site dumpster. After sawing them off, tape the ends or file them to prevent them cutting rope, Gore-Tex or flesh. On the climb, hammer or shove them down, tie them off and use them as rappel anchors, or just as support for hairy sections. Snow Climbing Techniques
On any snow, first assess the avalanche danger (see above). If you're sure that the slope is not going to avalanche, you can start climbing. The conditions - angle, your target, etc. - will determine precisely which technique is best for the slope you're on. Know how to self-arrest. This is a basic skill you need to be good at. It's worth an afternoon's practice to learn how to stop yourself when flipped upside down, or otherwise not in the textbook positions. Most steep, technical alpine climbs involve some snow climbing on either the low-angled apron beneath the climb or on shoulders and ridges used as descent routes. Some climbs, however, especially on ridges, can involve a lot of snow climbing. Whatever the case with your particular route, you need to be prepared to climb snow. On a lot of snow you'll be able to simul-climb, making quick work of long slopes. On a lot of the snow that you simul-climb you may feel that roping up is a bother, but you should be aware of the consequence of error. If a steep but easy snow slope leads up to your route and you start off just plodding upwards, your can quickly find yourself very exposed - a slip and tumble could take you thousands of feet, perhaps into the bergschrund or other crevasses below. Simul-climbing with a short, taut rope between the climbers (even without any pickets or other snow protection) is probably the safest way to go, even on easy slopes. Climbing together but unroped is rather stupid anyway. While most snow will be relatively easy to climb, there will come a time where you encounter strange deep, steep and loose snow, making for the some of the most unnerving climbing around. In these situations you must use your body as a large anchor, swimming upwards, burying your arms up to the shoulders for purchase and generally doing all you can to get to a secure belay. There is little that can be taught here - just remember to look for ice or rock protection once in a while. The second climber will have a rough time as the 'holds' will have all been crushed away by your ascent; belay with pity. Low-Angle and Medium-Angle Snow
On low-angled, tedious slopes it's easy to find yourself just plodding along, step-kicking with the front third of your boot. Remember that you can save precious energy by zig-zagging up the slope, or at least rotating your feet to the side for more purchase, as in Figure XX. It feels as if step-kicking with just the first third of your boot is efficient, because this is the most natural movement. However, this method takes a lot of energy as your calves are taking a lot of the stress trying to keep your heels up. If you turn your feet sideways you put most of the stress on your bones, not your muscles. This can be awkward and counter-intuitive at first, but it will save energy for more demanding sections of the climb. On moderate-angled snow slopes, you can still use all ten points of each crampon, but may occasionally be forced to step-kick. Do as necessary, place the occasional picket and use the least tiring method possible. Steep Snow
On yet steeper snow you may have to step-kick with the front portion of your boot, somewhat like front-pointing on ice. This is strenuous (unless you can kick deep holds) but can be effective and secure. Try to kick downward, producing steps sloping into the snow, so that your weight is applied on the toe of your boot and not on your heels or the ball of your foot. If you need to stop for a moment, cut or kick a large step in the snow. If possible, grab your axes by the heads and thrust the shaft into the snow as far as you can. On some types of snow it may be necessary to use the adze of your axe thrust into the snow, as illustrated in Fig. XX, for support. When snow gets really steep, consider using your axe picks in the daggering position. Grab the heads of the axes and sink the picks in as deep as possible. Use these holds mainly to keep your balance rather than for really yarding up on them. Divide the work between these holds and your legs. The legs should do most of the work. Figure XX illustrates a person daggering up a slope. On steep but loose snow, you might have some success using the adze of an axe in the daggering position, as shown in Fig. XX. When traversing steep snow you can gain some purchase by rolling the downhill boot so that all ten crampon down-points bite into the snow, rather than just using the 'edge' of the crampon. Figure XX illustrates this secure and energy-saving technique. If you need to kick toe-steps on a traverse, be even more diligent to kick them down and into the snow, giving you a secure purchase. Step-Cutting
In strange or desperate conditions you may be forced to cut steps into snow with an axe. Figure XX illustrates a good technique. This requires practice to be efficient. Modern crampons make step-cutting rare, though, as the front-point group can often be used on terrain where climbers of days long ago cut steps. Still, it is a good technique to remember and practice. Who knows; some day you may end up losing your crampons on a climb (a chilling thought). Similarly, it may some day be necessary to cut hand-holds. Use the adze of your axe to chop a deep slot in the snow such that you can get a hand wrapped around the lower edge and inside. That's about it; you don't need to get too elaborate with step or hand-hold cutting. These are slow and tiring techniques, but you should be prepared to use them. See Figure XX and practice. Corniced Ridges and Cornices
These may have cornices one side of the ridge or both, depending on the prevailing winds in the area. Take the precautions noted above for cornices. In really awful circumstances you may need to throw yourself off one side of the ridge if you see that your partner has fall off of the opposite side, as shown in Figure XX. Believe it or not. Do this only if simul-climbing or with the poorest of belay anchors and where the ridge is not sharp enough (ice, or rock beneath the snow) to cut the rope when two bodies are hanging on it. Before venturing onto such terrain as may demand this action, arrange some plan for getting back up onto the ridge; if one climber is starts up before the other is climbing, the weight may pull the climbing partner up and over the ridge - not what you had in mind. On really bad corniced ridges consider NOT following in the leader's footsteps, as this may provide just enough of a weakness in the snow to release a cornice - you just don't want to be around when that happens. At some point you may end up under a cornice and need to pass over it to reach the summit, or ridge, or whatever. The best way to do this is to try to go around it, though this is all too often impossible. In such a case you will have to tunnel through the cornice. This is difficult and exhausting and will thunder heaps of snow onto the belayer, but it can't be helped. Put up your hood and wear your goggles and gloves. Use your axe shafts thrust wholly into the snow for holds. Try to estimate the angle you need to tunnel at so that you break through on the other side as soon as possible. Your belayer will thank you as they've spent the last hour gazing up at a huge snow gargoyle apparently ready to drop off at any moment. Figure XX illustrates some points regarding cornice tunnelling. Post-Holing
Some day you'll encounter deep snow such that you will have to post-hole. At each step you sink deep into the snow, creating 'post-holes'. This can be the most exhausting part of a climb; you're straining to lift your legs out of the hole every time and then trying to re-set them the surface, only to have them sink in again. It's rather like trying to hike up a steep hill of sand, only much, much worse. More than once, my partner and I have been reduced to crawling - to distribute our weight across the sugar-like snow - when the post-holing became too exhausting, and when our knees and hands start sinking in we usually to resort to slithering in utter despair (skis would help, but are only good for the approach, and there's no way I'm going to lug a pair of snowshoes up a climb). The idea is to distribute your weight over a large area. The second climber may often save a lot of energy by literally following in the footsteps of the leader. Because this is easier than plunging the steps, switch leads as the terrain allows to share the work. You'll soon find yourself seething with resentment if your partner shirks the responsibility and doesn't volunteer to 'break ground'. If you're the lazy one, get to it and pull your share of the load. Most post-holing takes place on relatively level terrain where snow can build up considerable depths. If your find yourself in deep and loose post holing terrain on steeper ground, you've probably wandered into avalanche city. Get out by the fastest route possible. On flat post-holing terrain, such as approach routes, you may consider skis or snow-shoes, which will be a revelation. This often requires setting up a camp at the bottom of the climb and coming back for your skis later, so plan accordingly. Snow Flutings
A snow fluting is a long vertical ridge of snow, as illustrated in Figure XX. Climbing these can be very difficult as they are often capped with joints which merge into other flutings (see Figure XX). You'll have to deal with them as you may, sometimes burrowing up through smaller joints and into another fluting trough, or traversing across the flutings to get to other troughs. Consider looking for protection beneath the surface snow. Snow Balling
Snow often 'balls up' under your crampons and you end up lugging a five-pound mass of ice on each boot. This can be extremely dangerous if you let it build up, as you may suddenly need a good foothold which will be impossible to get with a ball of compacted snow on your boot soles. You can use an ice axe to knock the side of your boot or crampon occasionally when this is happening. Resist the urge to kick the stuff off; it's easy to snag a front-point in a gaiter or a boot-lace and take a tumble. This is a particular danger when descending 'safe', easy snow slopes where you may be galloping along. You can coat your crampons with a silicon dip to prevent snow biuild-up, or even with duct tape. Still, no method is completely preventative. The main things to remember in alpine snow climbing are that you should stay clear of avalanche terrain, use the greatest number of crampon points for purchase and stay off the front third of your boots as much as possible. Descending Alpine Snow
As with ice and rock, you can descend via rappels, with the security of a fixed line or by down-climbing, perhaps with tension from the belayer. And again, down-climbing is the safest for most terrain, banishing the myriad dangers of rappelling. Still, when you must rappel, use the appropriate saftey measures mentioned in the sections on Alpine Rock/Ice Rapelling. For fixed rope descent see the section on Descending Fixed Ropes. Down-climbing snow is usually straight-forward and intuitive, and I am assuming that you have some training here already. The main things to keep in mind are - again - that you want the maximum number of crampon points to bite at a time, and that you want to preserve strength by staying off of the front portion of your boots. If you can, descend facing outwards, knees bent and with your axe thrust in the snow, securing your upper body as you move your legs. On steeper snow, turn inwards and dagger with your picks or use your axe shafts as necessary, as shown in Figure XX. Belay on steeper snow if possible, and on a fixed line stay tied in and use a saftey ascender knot or device. Kick big holds for your partner and place protection occasionally. As your partner descends they'll be at increased risk of a big fall if they slip, unless you place reasonable protection as you descend and then belay them as they come down.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cameron's Climbing Page | Cameron's Home Page