by CAMERON McPHERSON SMITH
copyright 1996
ALPINE ICE CLIMBING
It can be argued that ice climbing is the second fundamental skill of the alpinist. As with rock climbing, ice takes time and effort to master. At first you'll probably be amazed at how easy it is to climb all but the steepest ice. The line between 'rather easy' and 'awfully hard' is very fine, but often very clear. If you learn to judge the location of this line in different situations, you'll make better decisions when confronted with a section of ice. Ice can often provide critical links between rock or snow sections, providing a steep 'bridge' across rock too steep or featureless to climb in alpine boots. For these sections, be thankful. You'll be less thankful when ice glazes rock, but you can't often have it your way; that's part of alpinism. Ice climbing is equipment-intensive, but the equipment can do nothing without the direction of a human mind. Remember this as you read the sections on ice tools and become engrossed in the details; the technology is fantastic, and can make amazing ascents possible, but it is the person swinging the tools that counts. Get your mind into gear on an ice climb; you should be cunning and subtle; brutal attack generally results in a clumsy butchering of an otherwise climbable route. On the other hand, occasionally brute force is precisely what's needed. This variety of thinking skills and opportunities make ice climbing an awesome mental and physical adventure. Ice Tools The basic tools are those which attach your hands and boots to the ice. These are the ice axe and the crampons. You will find a surprising variety of tools available these days and, no doubt, in the future. Try not to get so bogged down with technicata that you forget the climbing you're supposed to be doing. On many alpine routes it may be possible to climb with a single axe. Consider that many of the great faces and ridges still climbed today were first climbed decades ago, in the days when there were no drooped picks, bent shafts or modular tools. For a period, even wrist-loops were considered 'cheating'. A great many classic climbs were done first with a single axe and a handful of pieces of protection. I'm not asking you to stick your neck out in the interest of tradition (though you may reasonably wish to do so), only that you consider the style of the first ascent before you go up. If you decide on taking two axes on a climb, which will likely be most of the time on technical routes, it's humbling to remember the style in which the first ascent was made, and adjust your bragging accordingly. I will try to condense your choices of axe designs in this section, but keep in mind that there is no substitute for experience. Before buying tools, ask around. Find out which tools are better for particular situations. As a beginner, I suggest looking for the most versatile tools. You can specialize later; for now, set yourself up with a solid pair of generalized tools which can be used on any terrain, or at least can be modified to deal with any terrain. Ice Tools : The Axe and Hammer The basic features of ice axes are illustrated in Figure XX. These are the pick, the adze (or hammer, if dealing with an ice hammer), the shaft and the spike (or ferrule). Axes are fitted with a wrist-loop, or sling on which the wrist is supported so that you don't grip the shaft so much as hang on the loop. A few basics to consider when you are going to buy an axe, or a pair of axes. Go to a store with a good selection of axes (if you can find one) and feel them out. When ice climbing one of the main considerations is control and aim rather than strength. Swing the axes overhead, simulating an ice climb. After comparing a number of axes, you'll probably find that you feel most comfortable with a certain pair. Go with what feels most controllable. See if your hand comfortably grips the shaft - a fat axe is difficult to grip, but the ease of grip also depends on the size of your hand and the type of gloves you'll be wearing. Wear a pair of gloves and see how the axes feel; if they're at all too fat, and you find it difficult to get your fingers around the shaft, it's going to be ten times worse in the field ! Get axes you can hold comfortably with minimal effort. Axes equipped with rubber-coated shafts are much easier to hang onto than bare-metal shafts. If the axe comes with an attached sling, try it out to see if it's easy to operate with one hand, or with your teeth (try not to slobber on the display model). If the salespeople are climbers and know anything about the gear, ask around about 'field reports'; notoriously strong tools, weak tools, whatever. You will spend a lot of money on your ice tools, so get the best information you can before dropping your cash. Remember, few retailers will give a refund on climbing gear (damage to equipment may be effectively invisible). Don't rush into a purchase, and for heaven's sake, don't buy the coolest-looking tools. You won't feel so cool if they turn out to be dogs. For general mountaineering - that is, most non-technical climbing, you can use a walking axe. The standard walking-axe is illustrated in Fig. XX. This is generally an axe with a shaft long enough so that, when the axe-head is held in the hand the spike touches the ground and can be used for support. This is a rather long ice axe, often 60-80cm in length. The size chosen depends on the user, of course. Note that the pick of the walking axe is roughly perpendicular to the shaft. In technical tools, discussed below, the pick is more radically drooped. The perpendicular orientation of the walking-axe pick provides plenty of clearance for the pcik to dig into snow during self-arrest (see the section on Alpine Snow Climbing). The advantages of a walking axe are that it provides a good reach, which may be critical in some cases, and that it is generally excellent for self-arrest. Additionally, the length of the walking axe can make it a better anchor in snow than the shorter technical axes (see the section on Snow: Anchors). The main disadvantage of a walking-axe on a more difficult alpine climb, as opposed to a general mountaineering route, is that the droop of the pick is too moderate to be really secure when used on very steep terrain, particularly for hooking. Though you can amaze yourself with how much can be accomplished with a walking-axe on steep ice, few will tackle a really steep or hard pitch without specialized ice tools. In contrast to the walking axe is the technical ice tool. This is shorter and, even when the pick is fixed (rather than interchangeable; see below) it is drooped at a steeper angle than the walking axe pick. Technical tools often have interchangeable picks, and some allow you to change the adze and hammer-head as well. Additionally, some technical tools these days often have a bent shaft, which many claim to be almost essential for the most difficult ice pitches. These features are discussed below. You will need to decide on the length of the technical tools you want to buy. Most tools come in lengths from about 45cm to 60cm. The swing and aim of a 45cm tool is perhaps easier to control than with a longer tool, but of course with a longer tool you may be able to hook that ledge that's just out of reach of the shorter tool. Some climbers also find a shorter tool easier to use as a hammer for nailing in and removing pitons, and therefore carry one shorter tool (say, 45cm) and one longer tool (say, 50cm). My main partner, Chiu Liang Kuo (a real equipment expert) uses this system, but I've always found it to be awkward, and I just choke up on a hammer to make it easier to use. It seems that a good balance for the beginner, interested at first in developing the varied skills of alpine climbing, is to get a pair of 50cm tools. Next to length, another major consideration is whether or not to get tools with fixed or modular heads. These are illustrated in Fig. XX. This is a pretty simple choice in my mind. However good a fixed tool is, you may some day break one of the components; probably the pick. There are few situations more distressing than being in the middle of a hard pitch and finding that - surprise ! - it's just turned into a one-tool climb. The solution used to be have a spare axe dangling from your harness, but today many climbers just shell out the cash for modular tools and replace the components that get broken. On a climb, it's pretty nice to know that you're carrying a spare pick, even if replacing that pick, while on the lead, can be tough. Also, when you get back to civilization, you can just buy another pick rather than a whole new tool. It seems clear: even for the beginner, you may as well get a pair of modular tools. They will be more expensive but they will probably pay off the difference when you break your first pick. When you're picking modular tools, look for those with the strongest head assembly. Steel alloy units are far more durable than any aluminum alloy units. A third choice to consider, less clear to me than the last, is whether or not to get straight-shaft or bent-shaft tools. These are illustrated in Fig. XX. Even vertical water ice can be climbed without too much trouble with straight-shafted tools, especially when fitted with technical picks (see below). However, bent-shaft tools can make this sort of climbing much easier (by increasing the efficiency of the swing and reducing wrist-bending, as shown in Figure XX). If you want to become the Earthly Master of Hard Ice, you'll likely need a pair of ultra-modern ergonomic tools to catch up with what the current Masters are doing; then again, you may find that you can do these routes with straight shafts, which would be a delicious victory over technomania. Some say that bent-shaft tools keep you from bashing your knuckles. Others say that this is poppycock, and that bashed knuckles are a sign of poor technique. I agree, as I quickly learned not to smash my knuckles with straight shafts after a few painful ascents. Some climbers insist that bent shafts are more difficult to plunge into snow than straight shafts (see the section on Alpine Snow Climbing), but I have not found this to be a real problem. The choice is yours. Just be sure you research your tools very carefully. Another critical choice is that of what type of pick to buy. Basically, picks come in alpine and technical styles. A selection is illustrated in Fig. XX. The main difference between these types of picks is in the angle of the pick relative to the shaft of the tool: see Figure XX for the principles. Alpine picks are closer in angle to that of the walking-axe, though they are drooped more. These 'classic' picks are meant to be used on moderate terrain, though, again, many climbers can use them even on vertical ice. I have done so and if I can do it, believe me, so can you. For really outrageous terrain, such as extended vertical ice or even overhanging ice, technical picks make climbing a lot easier (though never easy !), and are probably safer as you're less prone to falling when the climbing is easier. Try to select picks that have a large shoulder that you can hammer on to drive the pick into really dense ice, as shown in Figure XX. Some manufacturers produce picks which have an angle between that of the technical and the alpine (e.g. the Grivel 'Face Nord' and 'Evolution' picks, and the Black Diamond 'Alaska Pick'). These picks are made for the most varied terrain; on long climbs, where you'll encounter very technical sections as well as moderate alpine conditions, these will allow you to climb both types of terrain without changing picks. This is an excellent choice for the beginner. Some mid-range picks are illustrated in Figure XX. If you buy modular tools it's a simple matter to buy a pair of alpine picks and a pair of technical picks (well, simple if you can afford such luxury !) and change them according to the climb. This is another advantage of the modular tools. Most technical picks are flat blades, though Lowe produces a tubular pick (see Fig.XX) for use on water ice only. Again, if you're going to specialize, this may be worth considering, but for the beginner a pair of standard alpine and technical picks is a good start, while a pair of mid-range picks is even better (if you buy tools from the company that makes them). The hammer-head and adze are pretty easy to deal with. A good hammer head is not small and is not round; a large hammerhead is easier to aim and a square or wedge-shaped one may be used for slotting in cracks. As for the adze, your choice is basically limited to adzes with or without lightening holes. I think the difference is negligible, though adzes without lightening holes have heavier heads and may place more readily in hard ice. Third Tools There are basically two situations in which climbers carry a third ice tool. On particularly difficult, dangerous or technical terrain, such as a practice ice-climb where you're pushing your limits in relative safety, a third tool may just save your hide; if you break a tool en route, and cannot replace the pick while hanging from a single tool, you can whip out the third tool, hook the ice and then get to work on the broken tool, or just carry on upward. On the same terrain you may find it impossible to hang from just one axe while placing a piton, and the third tool may again be used as a hammer. Sometimes you can use a third tool, with a much shorter shaft than regular tools, for very delicate maneuvers like hooking. Whatever the case, on these sorts of climbs, where you're are not too worried about the extra weight, a third tool is a good idea. Another situation in which a third tool may be useful is on a big, remote climb (where your are concerned with weight, intimately !) where a dropped or ruined tool would spell disaster. For the beginner I would suggest just going with two tools, to start anyway. If you really want a third tool for a desperate practice climb, just borrow one of your partner's tools and lower it to them when you reach the belay. Wrist-Loops and Lanyards As mentioned earlier, you don't normally stay attached to the axes by gripping them alone - you'd have to be Hercules incarnate if you did. It's humbling to remember that for a few years wrist-loops were considered cheating, and people DID just grip the tools ! These days you put your weight on the wrist-loop, just wrapping your fingers lightly around the shaft of the tool. The only time you really clamp down on the shaft is when you swing it to make a placement or drive a piton or screw. Some tools come supplied with a wrist-loop, but most don't; you have to buy the sling separately. Making wrist-loops is interesting and fun because you get to experiment with your own personal design. It's also a lot cheaper than buying a ready-made sling, and a home-made model is probably better suited to your needs and tastes. The simplest sling is just a loop which is twisted around the wrist when you need your hand secured, and then untwisted when you want to get your hand out. See Figure XX. Another, more elaborate, set-up is illustrated in Figure XX. This sling has a sliding adjuster which can be cinched down on your wrist. It also has a tab sewn on so that you can operate it with your teeth, which can be very useful if somewhat barbaric-looking. Depending on your threshold for pain, you may want to add a wrist support by threading the sling with a length of one-inch tubular webbing, which may also be covered with duct tape. See Figure XX. It's a good idea to add a clip-in loop at the bottom of the sling so that you can attach a lanyard (see below), clip in for an improvised belay, or for the occasional rest on steep terrain. A number of sling suggestions are seen in Fig. XX. Remember when attaching the sling to set it up so that it does not, when weighted, pull the tool out from the ice, but at least straight downward, or even inward towards the ice. To do this, see Figure XX. It's also important that you rig the sling so that when weighted, the stress does not tend to torque the pick from the ice; to prevent this, rig the sling as shown in Figure XX. Also, you may as well use runner-strength sling to rig the wrist loop; this will be reassuring when you use the tool for an improvised belay, and if you ever get in such a mess that you have to remove the slings and use them for rappels, you'll at least know that the sling isn't the weak link in the anchor. Rig your slings so that when you let go of the tool and let it hang from your wrist (as when you need to do some rock climbing) it won't hang horizontally and snag on rock or ice (a rude interruption to any delicate move, you can be sure). See Figure XX. Finally, rig the sling so that when weighted by the clip-in loop (if you add one), the loop does not constrict and make it impossible to get your hand through again until you've removed the load. This principle and a solution are illustrated in Figure XX. The theme of creativity which is such a dominant aspect of alpine climbing applies here too; experiment with designs and settle for one which is best for your style of climbing. Some climbers use lanyards (or leashes), cords of perlon which attach the ice tool to the climber's harness. See Fig. XX. The practice has pros and cons. One pro is that if you accidentally drop a tool, at least it'll still be hanging on your harness. Another is that you can rest on these lanyards right away if you get tired, rather than fiddling with clipping in a sling. A mixed blessing is that if you fall a long way, the tools stay with you as you go down, and at least you'll have them ready to climb up again; however, you may not get the chance to climb back up as you may have an ice pick implanted in your skull. A major con is that lanyards are an incredible nuisance. If you don't plan their length PRECISELY, they constantly foul in your hardware and they tend to get hooked under your crampons when you're doing certain moves, which is so dangerous and annoying that it can drive you to drink. See Figure XX. If you do decide to use leashes, adjust them so that they reach exactly from your harness to the maximum extent of your reach (do NOT make them even a centimeter too short !). Remember that they will be clipped into a carabiener on your harness, and that . The length should be adjustable so that when the tools are holstered, you don't trip on the leashes. I suggest you try climbing with them and without them and decide for yourself whether they're worth the effort. In my opinion, they're not. One solution is shown in Figure XX. Clip two slings of precisely the right lenght to your central harness biener, then to the chest strap of your pack. This keeps it from dangling at your feet until you need to use it. When you want to hang, just unclip a sling from your chest strap and clip the sling into the ice axe loop. Crampons Crampons are the spiked metal frames you attach to your boots to gain purchase on ice, snow and - sometimes - rock. There is a wide variety of crampon species infesting the world today. Some are good, some are excellent and some are crummy. Choosing the right crampon depends on your needs. When you choose crampons, consider what type of alpine climbing you will be pursuing; will you want to go for ice, or are you more interested in mixed climbing ? Are you just buying them to cross sections between rock ? Or, as is most reasonable, are you anticipating a variety of terrain, all of which you want to be prepared to climb ? For difficult ice, you need front-points rather shorter than intuition may tell you; shorter points reduce leverage and are better for balance. The front points should extend beyond the front welt of the boot about 1" or so. Some climbers wear crampons with interchangeable front points, switching from horizontal to vertical front points (or one point, the monopoint) as necessary. Such models are also good because they allow you to replace filed-down front-points rather than buying new crampons. Modular crampons, however, are generally rather expensive, and for the beginner they are probably overkill. A rigid, rather than articulated design is best on difficult ice, giving maximum support for extended front-pointing as shown in Figure XX. Figure XX illustrates these choices and notes some of their pros and cons. For the generalist, an articulated frame is better for walking (as on a ridge) and mixed climbing. If you can afford it, you may consider buying a pair of crampons with interchangeable front-points so that you can experiment and see what you like best. On the other hand, remember that you won't go wrong if you buy a 'basic' pair of crampons with fixed front-points. For snow-climbing the front points are best if horizontal, giving a bit more 'grab' than vertical points on harder snow. The down-points are not much concern on snow, as long as they bite, which they all should ! Crampons with 'French' second-points (as in Figure XX) can give a better purchase in snow and on some ice, but this is not really enough of a selling point in my opinion, as I'd rather trade that advantage for being able to climb mixed ground (see below). For rock and mixed climbing, the shorter front-point is good, again to reduce leverage, and it's best to have down-facing second points, as shown in Figure XX, to allow you to use the whole length of your front-points. The monopoint is excellent for mixed climbing, allowing you to climb rock rather naturally. Again, the most versatile crampons are probably the best bet. A final choice is between strap-on or step-in crampons. Strap-on's, shown in Figure XX, are attached to the boot with a system of straps. Old styles were complicated but more modern models are easier to operate. Step-in crampons attach with a toe-bail, a heel-clamp and an ankle-strap, as shown in Figure XX. The best step-in's offer the option of attaching another safety strap (see Figure XX, which secures them beyond doubt. Strap-on's can be a nightmare to rig with frozen fingers, and I prefer the simplicity of step-in's backed up with a saftey strap (see the section on Equipment Modification). The trick is to buy a pair of crampons which allow you the greatest degree of freedom in what you want to climb. Overall, for the beginner I suggest a pair of articulated crampons with 'mixed-climbing' second points, horizontal front-points, and a step-in attachment system (can be backed up; see the section on Equipment Modification). Such a pair of crampons should see you through many adventures on all types of terrain. I have climbed all sorts of terrain, from vertical water ice to rime ice to styrofoam snow to compact granite to crumbing volcanic crud with a pair of Stubai Tirol crampons. They are durable and a good beginner's choice, or a model on which to make comparisons when it comes time to buy. Fit the crampons you're considering to the pair of boots you're considering. It will be little use to buy one or the other and find out that they aren't compatible. Boots Yet another nebulous topic, and again, in my opinion, unnecessarily complex. Yes, by all means you MUST get good boots, but no, by all means, the extremes of detail available today are not always useful. I discuss boots here rather than elsewhere because for technical climbs they are so intimately connected with crampons that the two should be bought together, or at least each considered with the other in mind. The basic choice is; plastic or leather. Leather is usually heavier, few leather boots are made with replaceable/modifiable inners, leather can freeze solid like a rock overnight and leather can crack or otherwise degrade if poorly treated. Plastic boots have replaceable/modifiable liners, remain flexible in low temperatures, do not (if well made) crack or otherwise degrade with age, and are relatively lightweight. Two pros for leather; one is that in really cold areas they may keep one's feet from freezing as they can expand a bit as your feet swell up with the stress of long hard days. Plastic boots which don't expand this way restrict the swelling and can cut off the blood in your foot, allowing it to freeze. This, however, is a rare occurrence (though it won't seem so 'rare' if it happens to you), and plastic boots have kept a lot of climbers warm. Choose boots and crampons together. Make sure they feel good when worn together in the store, and that the ankle strap doesn't constrict the boot and clamp down on your leg. Be sure the boot soles are stiff; front-pointing requires that the soles don't buckle. Make sure the front-points extend beyond the front welt of the boot by an inch or so. Look for quality in the inner boot if you don't want to replace them all the time (you can reinforce mediocre inner-boots with duct tape on the sole and seams). While wearing the boots in the store, with a pair of liner socks and insulator socks (see below for details), raise up on your tip-toes a few times. Does your heel lift up from the floor of the boot ? This can be annoying and detrimental on steep ice. How do the boots feel just walking around ? You'll be doing a lot of approach hikes and descents in them, so don't get stuck with a pair of clogs. Some boots offer a buckle system rather than laces, but I think this is an unnecessary expense for the beginner, and the buckles are still not infallible- they can clog with ice, and are bulky enough to make wearing gaiters a problem. If you get totally into alpine climbing you'll eventually be spending every last dime on it anyway; buy these later if you feel you really need them. Some boots are coming on the market these days which allow you to wear a rock shoe within the plastic shell; on the approach and descent you wear the shells for ice work, and just the rock shoes for the rock sections. Great, as you don't have to carry two pairs of boots (especially a problem when you have to try to figure out how to cram two enormous plastic boots into a tiny alpine backpack). In theory, anyway. The only ones available at this writing are the Presles offered by Raichle. Reports are that these are good for moderate snow and ice climbing, but that you don't want to go out on a limb in them. I'd wait on these until the ultimate comes on the market, which is probably not far off; a good ice boot with rock-climbing inner boots. Unfortunately, the big sacrifice will probably be in warmth. As with ice tools of any type, it may be possible to rent or borrow some boots before you buy, spending a day at a glacier and feeling out the different types. This may sound like a bother but when you see the price of ice tools and boots it quickly becomes worth the effort and expense. If you're planning on doing really difficult rock-climbing on your ascent, you'll need to bring along a pair of rock shoes. These should be rather lightweight and just large enough to allow you to wear a pair of heavy socks inside (in other words, don't bring your skin-tight sport-climbing slippers). Ice Protection Ice protection may, like snow and rock protection, be divided into natural and artificial protection methods and devices. The integrity of all ice protection depends primarily on the strength of the ice. You must learn to distinguish between different types of ice to assess where you do and do not want to place protection. As with most alpine skills, this is not something you can learn from a book; you must go out and learn by experience. The most general rules of thumb to start out with are that transparent or translucent ice is generally stronger than ice with bubbles trapped inside, which may make it rather opaque (unless it's not; that's about as certain as things get). The spectrum of colors of ice, from clear to blue to green to black depend on the conditions and the location of the ice, and you need to learn what colors mean in particular situations. Again, as you climb, carefully observe the qualities of different varieties of ice. Don't just climb blindly onward; learn to pick the best ice and get onto it if you can. For more on ice, and ice climbing in general, see Yvon Chouinard's 1977 classic, Climbing Ice. The book is elegant, inspirational and well illustrates the need for the learning process in alpinism - it is simply not something you can just 'pick up'. Natural Ice Protection Ice protection can sometimes be found by an imaginative use of slings around features such as icicles or hummocks of ice which may be modified into bollards much like snow bollards (see below). The key is to learn to recognize which features are safe and then using the features if you have the energy or time to arrange them. Icicles should be viewed with caution as they may be cracked or simply too small to accept the load of a falling climber. In assessing the strength of an icicle, consider the temperature and brittleness of the ice, the diameter of the icicle and how far down the icicle you can tie it off with a sling, as you would tie off a bottomed-out piton. If you find an icicle which appears to be good you can simply girth-hitch it as shown in Figure XX, clip the ropes(s) through and carry on climbing. An ice bollard is a 'mushroom' of ice shaped by the climber so that a runner or rappel rope slung around it will accept a load without slipping up and over the top. As a belay or rappel anchor the ice bollard is often worth the effort and can be very strong, such that the weak link in the system is rather the rope or sling than the ice. To chop an ice bollard you select a patch of good ice (perhaps looking for a natural hump which may give you a 'head start') and use the pick and adze to cut a teardrop-shaped mushroom as shown in Figure XX. The strength depends on the 'quality' of the ice, and you should familiarize yourself with the differences in ice integrity, as mentioned earlier. The bollard can vary in size depending on the ice, but I suggest a minimum diameter of 20" with a minimum depth of 6". It is crucial to undercut the ice such that the rope or sling looped around it cannot slip up over the top under a load. Remember to load the bollard downward rather than outward so that the chance of the sling slipping off are further reduced. See Figure XX. Figure XX illustrates a method of constructing a rappel anchor by cutting two holes into the ice and threading them with a sling. This should be done with extreme caution, taking particular care to keep the load on the sling downward rather than outward. Always look for other features to sling; trees, stumps, bushes, rock spikes, whatever. Assess their strength as best you may, sling them, and be off. Ice Screws The various forms of ice screws are the most common form of ice protection. Ice screws are tubular metal devices meant to be screwed into ice and clipped into with a carabiener. A variety of screws are shown in Figure XX, with notes regarding their differences. The 'strength' of an ice screw anchor depends on the ice. A big 12" screw driven full-length into rotten ice can be extremely dangerous. On the other hand, a 9" screw driven half way into good plastic ice and tied off to reduce leverage, as you tie off a piton, can be an exceptionally strong anchor. Because you rely on the integrity of the ice you must learn to distinguish between different qualities of ice and place your screws accordingly. Wherever you place the screw, you should follow a few rules, tempered with common sense as the situation dictates. Read the text and follow the illustrations in Figure XX. First, if necessary, clear off any crummy, crumbly surface ice with your axe. If you need to, chop some ice away to make room for the hanger to rotate. If you have a ratchet-type screw (see Fig. XX), this may not always be necessary. Now, place your screw at about 10-15o from perpedicular to the ice surface (see Fig. XX), and begin screwing it into the ice. With some sharp models this may be possible by hand alone, which is wonderful. If not, you can use an axe or piton to gain leverage, as shown in Fig. XX. Once the screw is in, down to the eye, clip in and carry on. If the screw bottoms out, hitting rock or impenetrable ice before the whole shaft is buried, you need to tie off the screw with a sling to reduce leverage in the event of loading the screw. DO NOT attempt to get in 'just one more turn', as this could shatter the whole ice mass and you'll have to start over. Tie off screws with a full-strength runner rather than the 1/2" wide slings used for aid climbing, taking care not to allow sharp threads to cut the sling. On the worst of all placements, you may consider tying the screw off with a wired stopper or perlon-slung chock (as shown in Figure XX), which will keep the load even closer to the ice than a sling. If you do this, remember to cinch the stopper or hex tightly so that they don't come off or work their way up the screw with rope drag as you continue leading. See Figure XX. Finally, clip the rope through, or tie in (if it's part of a belay anchor). If you need to place a runner to reduce rope-drag, consider threading a sling through the screw-eye or the hanger, then clipping this to the rope. This saves a carabiener, as shown in Figure XX. However, if the hanger is thin steel it may cut the sling in a fall, so use this method only on screws with robust clip-in eyes. Having done all this, the screw is placed and you may carry on in relative peace, for a few minutes, anyway. When you place ice screws as belay anchors, place each at least two feet apart from the other and try to identify different ice masses to screw into. For an ice belay I suggest a minimum of two screws; three or four would be better, particularly if the belayer will be hanging on (loading) the screws as the leader comes up and as the next lead is made. A constant loading like this can generate pressure on the ice such that the screw melts right out of its placement. One way to protect against this is to pack some snow over screws so that they don't conduct sunlight heat down the shaft. You may also use a mitten or anything else at hand; just keep the screw from direct sunlight, particularly in the case of prolonged loads. Finally, when placing ice screws as belay anchors remember the BERT system; keep the load equalized. Figures XX and XX illustrate a number of poor and excellent ice belays on ice screws and other alpine equipment. Adapt as the situation dictates and remember to keep an eye out for potential rock protection nearby. To remove an ice screw you just unscrew it from the ice. Well, that's the idea, anyway. Sometimes you'll have to hack at the ice around the screw for an apparent eternity, cursing your leader with a loathing you never thought possible. Screws will be filled with a core of ice after being placed, and this may be frozen at the base of the screw, making it difficult to remove. Happily, in some cases you can just tap the screw on the head once or twice to break this bond, and it should come out very easily. If not, consider using your axe or a piton as a lever to unscrew the placement (a piton is less liable to break than a pick). If you don't remove the core of ice from the screw it won't be possible to place it again. You may be able to shove the core out of the screw with a firm push of your finger or an axe pick (particularly if you spray the inside with WD-40 on occasion). If not, consider warming the screw inside your jacket (a nasty procedure). Don't bang the screw against rock or your ice tools; this just damages the threads and will rarely help get out the ice core. You can rack screws three at a time (or however you please) on carabieners on your harness gear loops. If you're going off on an extended ice pitch, you may want to prepare a number of 'quickdraws' - short (or shortened) slings with carabieners on each end - to quickly clip into and/or tie off screws as you lead. Whatever you do, rack your hardware so you can get hold of any piece instantly. For the beginner I suggest a range of ice screws; carry a few ratcheting screws, which you can place and remove in tight spots, as well as some extra-long (and a few short) 'standard' ice screws. There are some very light-weight and relatively cheap titanium screws available from the Russian Federation, but these are reputed to be rather weak. If you place them on lead, consider using them in intervals with other, stronger screws. On a glacier ascent, a number of screw-in screw-out screws will probably be sufficient. If on mixed terrain, you'll want to carry a few ice pitons as well, for the places too confined to work a normal (non-ratcheting) screw-in. The ice piton can be hacked out of the ice if necessary, and, though this is a laborious task, at least the leader was able to get in some protection on the lead. Screws often come with a little cap which protects the bit, but these are just a nuisance on the climb. Leave them in the car and just be careful not to gouge yourself or soft equipment (rope, slings, etc.) with them. Ice Pitons Ice pitons come in a number of forms. Most today are the drive-in, screw-out type. These are driven into the ice with a hammer and screwed out with the hand or a lever. Place them at the same angle as regular screws, hammer carefully (be careful to avoid hitting the shaft to the sides, as this will break the ice) and tie off or clip in as needed. There is little to say about these screws except that they tend to fracture ice more than screw-in screw-out screws simply because of the blows of the hammer. Well-placed in good ice, however, they are excellent anchors, and any rack should have a few ice pitons. The Hook The Spectre is a piece of protection built by Black Diamond. It is essentially a technical ice tool minus the shaft. The hook may be used to hook ice, or may be hammered into ice like an ice piton. In desperation, it can also be hammered into a crack like a rock piton, or even into a constricting crack in ice. You can also use if as an aid on verglassed rock, or even to aid the worst ice sections. The Spectre is an excellent tool, and carrying one or two is almost always a good idea. Improvised Ice Anchors There are a number of improvisations you can use to protect yourself on ice. The most ingenious is the 'ice-hourglass', a v-shaped tube formed by driving two screws into the ice towards each other so that their tunnels intersect and create a single tube. This is threaded with a sling or appropriate-diameter cord, which is tied with a water-knot or fisherman's knot, accordingly, and clipped into, or rappelled from. The 'ice-hourglass' method has been shown to be plenty strong for rappels when produced in decent ice. Another improvised method is to carry some plumbing conduit (of whatever diameter your screws are) and use 8-12" lengths of this as 'poor-man's screws'. As shown in Figure XX, you bore a hole in the ice with a normal ice screw, 'plug in' the conduit, and tie it off at the surface with a clove hitch so that it won't rotate when loaded. These 'poor man's' devices shouldn't be used on difficult leads unless it is absolutely necessary (e.g., you've dropped all but one screw !). However, on long ice pitches, perhaps when you have a 100m rope and are going the full length because of the relatively easy terrain, this method can save precious screws for the belays and lighten your load. Remember, though, this is an improvised method; plumbing conduit is not ice-screw material, and you should be placing these only on terrain where a fall is very unlikely. Figure XX illustrates the use of two conduit lengths, equalized and ready to be loaded. Remember not to place them too close to one another. Climbing Alpine Ice It's impossible to generalize on what 'type' of ice you may encounter on alpine climbs. Some routes (e.g. thickly-iced gullies) may follow melt-water ice the whole way. Others can follow glacial ice from bottom to top and down again, and other routes will involve ice and rock in the same area; mixed climbing. As in rock-climbing, the key is versatility. You must be able to manage on all types of ice. You need to practice, of course, before you set off for a 'real' climb. How much you can practice generally depends on where you live; you may be within reasonable driving distance of a glacier, where you can practice in crevasses or icefalls. You may also be able to get to waterfalls which freeze periodically, providing you with excellent difficult-ice training; consider yourself lucky and take advantage of the opportunities. If you're not so lucky, though, you may occasionally climb dead trees with axes and crampons, or head to some brick wall and traverse along it's length or up and over the top (this blunts your tools but is good strength and balance training). In the urban jungle you can often find a chain-link fence which can be hooked and front-pointed up, or along, with a pair of axes and crampons. As for myself, while living in northern England I used to practice by going to an abandoned quarry where a 20' vertical face of compacted mud and shale provided me with many 'afternoon adventures' (I was truly desperate for action !). Leading , Belaying and General Considerations Leading ice on alpine routes requires a balance of speed, efficiency and safety. You must keep going, as the longer you're on the ice the more tired you become. You must place protection speedily and well, again to combat increasing weariness. You must also be safe, protecting yourself and your second as the situation demands. I suggest that in practice sessions, before rushing off to lead a pitch, you play around at the base of the climb with your ice tools, learning how hard to strike the ice, what natural features may and may not be of use, whatever. Each climb will differ because of changing temperature, the tools you happen to be using, your state of mind, your physical state and other variables common to your particular area. Keep in mind these changing variables and try to monitor them as you climb; learn the range of variation and how the variables interact to produce certain conditions. In this book I am not attempting to teach you the basics of ice climbing; I am addressing considerations for the climber on a technical alpine route which requires more than what you can learn from a general mountaineering text or course. You need to learn to climb easy terrain and front-point before you go on to more difficult terrain. Having said this, try hardest in your practice sessions to get over the common error of over-placing your tools. As the ice gets harder to climb, this becomes harder to do, but you must learn not to set your picks to the hilt (figuratively, anyway) at each throw. If you do you'll waste priceless time (as measured by your agonized muscles) working the picks out, and you'll probably end up breaking at least one pick. Belaying on ice requires the same saftey measures as on rock, with some additions; you must place ice anchors in different ice masses, either naturally-occurring ones or by separating them by about two feet or so (see more on this below). Again, as on rock, with absolutely bombproof anchors (such as two perfect screws fully sunk into excellent ice) you can save time and effort by using the direct belay. See Figure XX for some points on direct belays on ice. Easy Ice Easy ice is just that - easy. The angle is between too low (which would force you to crouch too much) and too high (which would force you to hang from your tools). The ice itself is easy to place screws in and doesn't shatter, and accepts your tools with grace. When you come across such terrain, you'll know it because you'll be smiling. On such ice, the axes are used more for balance than for hanging and support. Even moderately steep ice (see Figure XX) can be easily climbed if you relax and move efficiently. Easy ice sections should be dispensed with as quickly as possible; they are a blessing, providing rather simple climbing; just plug in ice screws at intervals you deem safe. I suggest - for easy ice - placing a screw every thirty feet or so, meaning you carry ten screws for a 100m lead or five for a 50m lead. Though this means a major fall if you do come off (at least a 60-footer!), it is easy ice and you should not be coming off. If this is too hairy for your particular terrain, consider occasionally placing two screws (about three feet apart and equalized) rather than one, or just tighten up the interval between screws. It's somewhat absurd to give such general estimates, though, as easy ice may often contain sections of much more difficult ice, which need more protection. Do as you see fit. Remember this, though - however easy the ice is, do not run out the rope without protection. If, you run out a 100-meter rope and suddenly get a cramp, or get pegged in the face with a falling rock, or whatever, you're in for a 660 foot fall; the belay will be totally annihilated and you and your partner will make headlines in Accidents in North American Mountaineering. Probably not quite the claim to fame you had envisioned. On a 50-meter lead you may feel secure with only two or three screws on the whole lead. Remember, here I am talking about easy ice where falling is a remote possibility. One good way to speed up easy ice sections is to make as few tool placements as necessary. Place one axe securely, the other for balance, then step up as high as balance allows, place the balance axe as your next secure placement, and then remove the previous secure axe. This method is shown in Figure XX and it can save a lot of time compared to always placing two bomb-proof axes. In a later chapter I address a technique used for climbing easy rock or snow: this is simul-climbing, where the leader and second (roped together) climb at the same time, the leader placing gear and the second retrieving it 'on the hoof'. I would strongly suggest not simul-climbing on any ice - even easy ice - until you and your partner are such masters that you are certain not to make mistakes (you may never feel confident enough; that's better than getting over-confident without basis). The problem here is that even a small mistake can result in total failure (falling) more often than on rock or snow. You may snag a crampon in a strap, or have a tool bounce off the ice and hit you in the face, or have a tool break, or have a crampon come off, or any number of other 'minor' problems, and the consequence can be disaster. On rock and snow, when you're free-climbing at least, you're not so dependent on your technology. Steeper and More Difficult Ice When the ice steepens and/or becomes reluctant to accept protection, or ice tools, you are into much more difficult climbing. As mentioned before, the line between easy and difficult (and 'safe' and 'dangerous') is often very thin, but it is usually readily apparent; you know when you've wandered into hard ice! The main thing is that the ice is steeper and your axes have to bear more weight, as shown in Figure XX. On such difficult ice you must be more prepared for a fall, but at the same time you must be more careful that you don't fall in the first place. Place more protection (seee below) and climb smoothly; don't panic. Difficult ice can slow you down like aid climbing, but there is a difference. In A1 and A2 aid climbing (and even some A3) the higher you get, the less chance that a fall will really be that big a deal. On ice, with all the sharp instruments and the possibility that your protection is not so good, the consequence of a fall can be far more serious. For this reason, tackle difficult ice sections with the mentality that you can move fast later, and that for the moment you need to give the ice all your attention, however long it takes. Protect as best you can. On a 50-meter lead you might place a screw every 15 feet (say, just less than three body lengths). Again, these are general rules of thumb, and you need to act according to the terrain. There is another line you may cross here. It is that of over-protection on ice. It's not that you're placing too much protection, but that the more often you do the old 'stop-and-go' to place protection, the more tired you get and the less you can concentrate on just getting up the ice. This line is not as easy to identify than that between easy and hard ice, but it's definitely as important. Don't exhaust yourself to the point of falling by stopping every six feet to put in a screw. Place your tools with infinite care, move smoothly and, just when you begin to feel nervous, stop and place a screw. The protection intervals here are up to you and the myriad circumstances of the climb. On pure ice lines, try to place as many hand-driven screws as possible on the lead; let the belayer use the drive-ins and other difficult-to-place protection for their anchors. You'll both be better off - you as you lead and the second as they remove the placements. Difficult ice may be steep or rotten or a combination of the two, perhaps with other problems thrown in as well (such as an incessant shower of ice-water). Learn to deal with these on practice climbs where you can push your limits in some saftey. Thin Ice Thin ice is a most challenging climbing media. Much of it may be climbed as one climbs on verglassed rock. You may sometimes find it easiest to smash the ice and use the rock beneath, though over the course of a whole pitch this could be too much trouble - for resting, though, and finding protection cracks, it is good to remember this option. Take care to warn your belayer before you send a hundred pounds of ice their way. HOOK, don't HACK. This is rule 1. A normal throw, or even a gentle one, can literally shatter your only chance of success in an explosion of ice chips. Place your pick on an ice ledge, or ever so gently chip or scrape one out of the ice, and apply a steady pull. Push with your legs as much as you can and don't move that shaft. Rule 2 is that you must take extra care to place protection. Thin ice usually won't accept any normal ice protection (except perhaps the Spectre), so you'll do best to find some rock (it may be all too available anyway) and nail in a thin piton or place an SLCD. SLCD's take most climbers less time and energy to place than other pieces, and placing secure protection quickly will be near the top of your list of priorities when you're strung out on a horrific lead. Keep in mind that on thin ice you're relying heavily on your technology (ice tools and crampons) on an unstable media (thin ice stuck to rock); either or both may fail, regardless of your skill as a climber. Always get in some good protection as soon as you set off so that if you fall early in the lead you won't plummet down past the belayer and directly load the belay anchors. Figure XX illustrates a climber using thin-ice techniques - read the comments, keep the principles in mind and go out and practice, practice, practice. Rotten Ice This can be even worse than thin ice, and - to your despair - is often found at the same time as thin ice and poor rock, producing some of the most hair-raising climbing imaginable. If you hear water gurgling under a thin, bubble-pocked sheath of ice, beware. If you hear popping, groaning, cracking or other noises, you will be wise to take extreme care. Protection ? Probably none. Look for rock protection. In desperation, you may need to use a runner to sling two holes punched in the ice, as shown in Figure XX. Consider using your adze and hammer-head to gain purchase, as illustrated in Figure XX. As a last resort, consider aid if it's within your book of ethics. If you can't find any protection, consider a different route. Ask yourself if it would be better to return some other day, or if it's possible to find an alternative. It's invaluable experience to go to your nearest ice-climbing area and seek out the thinnest smears and the nastiest, most rotten, dripping gullies. Climbing these 'non-routes' while everyone else is on thick, plastic ice, happily hooking up holes left by previous climbers, will be about as close to real alpine conditions as you can get - there will be no clues for where to go, you will be alone and the conditions will be less than perfect; three kee ingredients of adventure and alpinism. Descending Alpine Ice To get down icy terrain you can employ the same techniques as in rock descent. Down-climbing and rappelling are critical here. As for down-climbing, follow the suggestions given for rock down-climbing. Use your legs as much as possible, and on icy terrain belay as much as possible. Use your tools as you see fit; here even more ethics may be dropped like a bad habit. Down-climbing icy rock can be a nightmare without the impediment of rules. Aid down short, steep steps, hang off your axes, grab bushes - whatever. Remember that while an easy ice slope is easy to get up, descending it with a pack on (making you top-heavy) can be extremely dangerous; self-arrest on ice will be very difficult if not impossible, so be prepared to belay descents of even very easy ice you may have ascended unroped (as on low-angled easy slopes at the beginning of a climb). When you need to rappel, take extra care around the rope while wearing your crampons. Always back up your descent with a prussik; your chances of getting snagged are increased, as the rope will likely be icy, your hands may be frozen and your crampons or the tools dangling from your harness may easily snag in cracks or on ledges. If the rope is really icy, consider an improvised method (see the section on Improvised Rappel Devices) rather than forcing it through your normal device and hoping for the best.
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