Technical Alpine Climbing

For Two-Person Teams

Rock climbing is the basic alpine skill. Unless you go out of your way to avoid it, you will spend much of your alpine adventure on rock. Some will be excellent, some will be rotten and terrifying - you must be p repared to deal with it all, and to this end you will have to practice on varied terrain.

If you are a rock-climber who wants to get into alpine climbing you'll find that you already posses a number of valuable skills. Personally, I think that it's best for a climber to become competent on rock before taking up alpine climbing. The reasons for this will become obvious as this chapter unfolds. The experienced rock-climber knows how to arrange secure anchors, set up belays, manage ropes a nd generally move upward and downward on steep terrain. Although these skills can be learned in an alpine setting, there are a number of reasons why one should begin with rock closer to home. First and foremost, the stakes in rock-climbing are lower. I f you make a serious mistake at a local practice crag - even if you're injured - chances are pretty good that you will survive. An ambulance can be called and you can be picked up relatively quickly. The same cannot be said for a person who makes the sa me mistake 9,000 feet up a mountain in poor weather.

If you're a fair-weather climber thinking about starting alpine climbing you should be prepared for a few things. If can't stand to be cold, or can't get used to it, or don't want to get used to it, you should probably forget alpine climbing. There are a few warm days, and there are a lot of 'warm' clothes on the market, but for much of the time you'll still be half-frozen. At some time you'll suffer a three-hour belay as your partner b attles above and icicles form on your crampons. At some time your hands will go totally numb, only to be revived in the most agonizing pain. Still, you may like it. You may even appreciate the pain as a clear signal that you are still amongst the livin g. Or, you may hate the cold every time, but find that the rewards of alpine climbing far outweigh the discomforts (strangely, after a while it becomes possible for you to call horrible pain 'discomfort').

If you don't have a good backgro und in 'fiddling' rock protection you should spend some time learning to do so - placing protection in unlikely places, taking maximum advantage of odd features. Try the unusual tricks you've heard of, such as stacking nuts, lodging knotted cord in crack s as protection, opposing nuts, tying off horizontal camming units, stacking pitons and so on. A number of these techniques are illustrated in Fig. XX, though a whole book could be written on the subject. Without question, technology is an important par t of the game: but the more important parts are imagination and curiosity. Alpine climbing is all about the unknown and the unexpected. You must be prepared to cope with a variety of less than ideal situations.

If you've done a lot of rock -climbing and you're dedicated to a particular type of climbing ('I'm a Crack-Man, myself. Don't go in for those faces, you know...'), bring your level of competence on other terrain at least up to a level comparable with your specialty. On an alpine cl imb you're likely to be called upon to perform on a wide variety of rock. Be prepared.

If you're a sport climber who hasn't placed much of your own protection, you'll need to learn this skill. However technically good you are, when clippin g bolts you're relying on other peoples' work, and in alpine settings this just isn't an option.

Finally, try to get out and do dirty, ugly routes - routes which haven't been touched because they're too loose, or wet, or wandering or otherwi se considered by 'rock technicians' to be just a waste of time. Learning to deal with rock you haven't felt yet, seeking your own line (however easy the terrain) and dealing with the unexpected; these are all skills you should be comfortable with before going on to alpine rock.

In short, the alpine rock-climber has to be versatile, efficient and capable of moving quickly on unknown terrain. You should do very well if you set these goals for yourself and practice the techniques at your loc al crag before venturing into the alpine regions.

Alpine Rock Anchors

Knots

The alpinist must be prepared with simple but versatile skills. I suggest that you only need to know seven knots to do any alpine route, anywhere. You may very easily get away with less knots and more ingenuity. These basic knots are illustrated in Figures XX-XX. The figure-eight is a good tie-in knot and should be used to tie into the harness loops, not clipped through a harness carabiener. The Munter (or Italia n) hitch is essential for icy ropes which won't fit through your belay device (or of you've dropped your belay device), though it kinks the rope. The prussik, Bachmann and kreutzklem I consider one knot as they are so simple to remember. These are discu ssed in the section on Ascending Fixed Ropes. The clove hitch is the best knot for adjusting sling and rope lengths, and is particularly good for belays and anchor equalization (all discussed below). Finally, the water-knot and fisherman's knot are used for tying slings and cords respectively.

Setting Up Belays and Other Fixed Anchors

A few basics to learn and remember, and supplement with practical skill. First, when placing a set of anchors for a belay or a rappel (if on a descent rappel you may have to leave the gear behind) use the BERT system to equalize the strain on your (hopefully securely placed) anchors. BERT stands for Bombproof, Equalized Redundant and Taut. Bombproof, hopefully, will describe the security of the ancho r placement. In many cases, though this simply will not be possible, but you must take the time to do your best. Equalized means that the anchors are connected by a sling, slings or rope such that all anchors are being loaded at the same time, thus dis tributing the load over all the anchors rather than on just one or two. Redundant means having more than just one or two anchors. If possible, get in three or four, and for hauling or other sweaty work, five may be advisable. It all depends on the situ ation, but you should try diligently to never have less than two anchors. Taut means that the back-up anchors, if there are any, will not be shock-loaded if the other anchors fail. This is accomplished by equalizing all anchors as well as possible and a ttaching the back-up anchor to the other anchors with a taut link, rather than having slack in the system. See Figure XX for an illustration of these principles. Other acronyms for such a system have been devised; you can easily tailor one to your taste such that at anchor-placement time you never forget to go over these points.

In alpine rock climbing you must consider a few basic safety measures that are often overlooked on 'regular' rock climbs. The leader must always place some protection ve ry soon after casting off so that a slip early on the pitch will not send them falling below the belayer, directly shock-loading the belay anchors. Also, belay anchors must have at least one component rigged for an upward pull so that in a fall this can take a good deal of the load. See Figure XX. When your team is moving swiftly (as should be the case on an alpine route), it may be easy to arrive at a belay station, grab the rack and head upward for the next pitch without considering this point, as th e leader was only concerned with belaying you up the pitch. It's a good habit to always place 'up' anchors when rigging a belay (this goes for snow and ice belays also) so that the second can come up, pass you and carry on the next lead in (relative) saf ety.

When you have good reason to believe that your anchors are bombproof to the point of extremity, a very quick and efficient method of belaying is to use the direct belay. This is belaying the rope directly through an anchor, rather than off yo ur harness. The principle is shown in Figure XX. Again, this is only justifiable when you are certain the anchors are perfect. This occurs on occasion, and can save a lot of time, eliminating rigging complexities. You may use your belay device or a Mu nter hitch (as shown in Figure XX), but remember that the Munter hitch will twist and kink your rope - a real drag, and time-consuming. When you consider a direct belay do not accept anything less than bombproof anchors. In a fall the load will come dir ectly on the anchors; if these blow you and your partner are finished.

NOTE: March 1998. Tests by Chris Harmston of the Black Diamond company have found that the static belay is far inferior to the 'dynamic' belay. The static belay is one in which, as just described, the entire force of the fall is take directly by the anchors; this can create massive forces on the anchor system, causing multiple elements of the system to fail simultaneously and catastrphically. Better than this is the dynamic belay, in which some force is absorbed by the belayer's body as well as a somewhat more lenghty pay-out of rope during the fall. SO: keep these in mind, and decide for yourself. I think I will give up the fixed belay and stick with the dynamic (I nevere really got that much use out of the static belay anyhow...)

Natural Protection on Alpine Rock

The simplest protection is mindful navigation between rock features by the leader. Often on easier terrain the leader can weave a path between rocks and other features so that a fall will bring the rope across that feature and provide an anchor like any other piece of protection. The intelligent and creative use of slings (girth-hitched, preferably, so they don't slip off t he feature) is particularly rewarding on natural features. Of course, check out the features before you use them. Look for obvious cracks, and be sure the feature isn't just a boulder glued to the rock face with a dribble of ice. Figure XX illustrates the principles of natural rock protection.

On steeper terrain, good natural features become more difficult to find. Technology is frequently required to supplement the protection methods available to the climber.

Artificial P rotection on Alpine Rock

Rock-climbers who have placed their own protection will be familiar with the hardware described in the following sections. However, here I address the application of standard protection to alpine conditions, so you should not skip this section believing that you already know it. As for climbers who have not yet led and protected themselves, you should get practice at this on pure rock routes and then move on to alpine routes.

As is the case with many other types of climbing equipment, the market today is awash in an ocean of multi-colored, anodized and specialized hardware. A bit of trawling, however reveals that this diversity may be broadly divided into three basic types; passive protection, passi ve camming protection and active camming protection. The top-roping and/or bolt-clipping sport-climber will need to get some experience before venturing into alpine terrain, or their venture may be rather brief. The following sections summarize the basi cs of rock protection and suggest some adaptations for alpine conditions. The main thing to remember in selecting your alpine rock gear is that you should be prepared for anything from hairline cracks to ice-glazed off-widths. Take a variety of the tool s available and balance an appreciation for elegant design with a loathing for gimmicks.

Passive Protection

Passive protection is slotted into a crack and is totally inactive until it is called upon to hold a load. The principl e is that a wedge placed above a constriction will not be able to pass through the constriction with a downward pull. This is entirely intuitive and is illustrated in Fig. XX, along with a selection of commonly produced nuts (a widely-used generic term f or a piece of passive protection is 'nut'; some also call them 'tapers', 'chocks', 'wedges' or 'wires'). The main things to remember here are that you place the wedge so that the greatest possible surface area contacts the rock, and that you need to pre vent the piece from being subjected to an outward pull. To get the greatest surface area to contact the rock you need to select the right size and shape of wedge for the crack at hand. Ensuring that the nut is not loaded outward from the crack rather th an downward is best done with runners, which also reduce rope drag. Both of these concepts are illustrated in Fig. XX. You may sometimes place a passive anchor such that it acts as a passive camming unit. See Fig. XX for suggestions and notes here. Ge t to know the range of your tools, and strain the gray cells.

For alpine work it's a good idea to carry a number of very small stoppers, or 'wires', so that you have a chance to aid thin cracks without resorting to nailing in pitons. Piton ing an aid section will generally take longer than using chocks on same section, and should be avoided. Also, wires are much lighter than pitons and you can carry a lot of them for the same weight as one piton. Of course, they may not be as secure as pi tons, particularly if you end up using them for protection, so you don't just abandon pins out of hand. The key is versatility.

Medium-sized wires can be most useful for protecting/aiding finger-sized cracks. I suspect that you may decide to abandon larger sized wires for alpine terrain; when compared to the versatility of medium-sized passive camming units (such as the Hexcentric or tri-cam - see below); I've found that larger wires start to lose appeal.

Consider the route g eology, ask around (if your ethic allows), and/or try to predict the crack size. This can be extremely difficult, as what looks like a nice finger-crack through a pair of binoculars may turn out to be a three-inch hand-crack.

Passive Camming Protection

This is protection which is torqued, or canted, or 'cammed' in a crack or feature such that the downward pull will lodge it tighter in the feature with torsion. The principle is easiest to understand in Fig. XX, and even better understood with experience in placement. The great advantage of passive-camming units is that they can be used in parallel cracks; where conventionally-placed wires normally need some sort of constriction in the crack (unless placed in a horizontal crack ; see above), passive cams can be used in less hospitable features. There are two main types of passive camming units on the market today. Black Diamond makes the Hexcentric, an excellent and time-honored tool. Lowe Alpine makes the Tri-Cam, another ex cellent tool, once you get used to it. Many climbers find a Hexcentric easier to place than a Tri-Cam. The lower weight of Hexcentrics (also known as 'hexes') is an advantage over comparably-sized Tri-Cams, though Tri-Cams are possibly more versatile, d epending on the terrain. You'll have to experiment around and find out which protection you're most comfortable placing. It's better to figure this out on a crag than in some ice-choked gully...

For alpine work the hex seems to be the perf ect rock protection. It can be placed both in a 'camming mode' and in two 'wedge modes'. While some passive anchor units may be placed so that they are camming, they are not designed for like the hex is. Slung with Spectra cord, the hex is lightweight and not bulky. I suggest you keep these points in mind as you're accumulating a new rack of hardware or adding to an old one.

As mentioned earlier, larger-sized stopper-type units tend to lose out to passive camming or active camming uni ts in versatility. A hex the same width as a large stopper is more versatile than that stopper because it can be used in the same constriction as that stopper (in conventional wedging mode) but can also be used in a parallel crack, where the stopper migh t be impossible to use. On an alpine rock-climb, then, I suggest taking less larger wires and more comparably-sized hexes.

Whenever possible, passive camming units should be slung with Spectra or Gemini cord. These new kevlar-fibre cords a re extremely strong and lightweight, and reduce the bulk of the rack; both concerns on alpine climbs. The stuff is expensive but certainly worth the extra money.

Active Camming Protection

This is protection which relies on spri ngs and/or some sort of tension or outward pressure to keep the piece in the crack. In the event of a fall the cammed unit grips the rock with an outward pressure of the cams. This is best understood in Fig. XX and by getting hold of some active camming units and experimenting with them.

These units, generically called 'Friends' or 'FCU's' (four-cam units) or 'TCU's' (triple-cam-units) or 'SLCD's' (spring-loaded camming devices) are expensive, heavy, versatile and can be very secure if pro perly placed. You'll have to decide for yourself whether they are worth the weight and expense. Certainly they can be used to cover a range of other pieces of protection, so that in essence one Friend may be 'worth' three stoppers of ascending size; but remember that you can only place the Friend in one place on the pitch, whereas if you have three stoppers you may be able to place all of them on the same pitch. Three pieces on the pitch versus one; worth thinking about. Though SLCD's can be faster an d easier to place for the beginner, you can become good enough at placing stoppers that this 'advantage' starts to lose importance with time. Also consider that dropping a single stopper or hex is less of a disaster (because you have a few others) than d ropping a single SLCD.

In alpine conditions you have to remember not to place SLCD's in icy cracks. This is mainly because if the unit is loaded the ice may break and the rock crack may not be the right size for the particular unit you've p lugged in. It is also because SLCD's can 'walk' out of icy cracks easier than out of rock cracks. Chip away any coat of ice before placing the unit. See Fig. XX. Most SLCD's come with some sort of sling, but many, in my experience, are too short, and need to be replaced or extended because they tend to tip the unit sideways with rope drag. See Fig. XX. Though a fall may just pull the cam straight down again, it may not, and it's better just to keep it from moving in the first place.

In alpine climbing it is the micro-and macro-sized active camming units that are of the most use. In really tiny cracks which need to be aided, a pair of TCU's or 'sliders' 'leapfrogged' can really speed things up as they are faster to place and remove tha n most small-stopper placements (for 'leapfrogging' see the section on Alpine Aid Climbing). In the event of a fall, the smallest SLCD's might be stronger than small stoppers, though this is variable. For medium-sized cracks, standard hexes and stopper s and the like are fine, and are plenty strong enough and are relatively cheap and lightweight. I see little reason to bring along, say, two medium-sized Friends (which I can only place two times on a single pitch) when I can easily bring along, for less weight and bulk, four or five stoppers of ascending size (which I can place four or five times on a single pitch). Moving on to larger cracks, you may find that for these you like the security of giant SLCD's such as the Yates BigBro or one of the sprin g-loaded adjustable tube chocks available. These are good for protection of otherwise nearly unprotectable wide cracks; the alternatives - bong pitons (see section on Pitons) are pretty unpopular on alpine terrain because of rock destruction, their weigh t and bulk and low versatility compared to large SLCD's. The problem with these larger SLCD devices, though, is that they are heavy, and sometimes larger cracks can be protected with the largest hexes. Although every rack depends on the route, I would g enerally suggest that on alpine climbs you should use SLCD's for the smaller cracks, perhaps bringing a couple of giant ones if you really expect extended off-width cracks.

If you're aware of some larger cracks on your route and want to prot ect them but don't have any giant SLCD's or don't want to carry their extra weight, you can expand the working range of your units with some type of 'expander'. To do this you rely on methods normally used in technical big-wall climbs. Basically, you pl ace any firm item available against one side of the crack and then insert the SLCD between this item and the wall of the crack. Now release and let the 'expander' be held in the crack with the pressure from the SLCD. If you're lucky the piece will hold, even under a load. See Fig. XX for the principle. Many climbers use wooden blocks, as shown in Figure XX, as 'expanders.

A lot of climbers find SLCD's somewhat addictive. I know one who just doesn't use anything else; no stoppers, no hex es, no exotic European imports - just Friends. This is unthinkable to me (though I do use SLCD's), but she's happy doing it. No problem, I say, unless she wants to get onto alpine rock, where, as I have mentioned ad nauseam, versatility is the key to su ccess.

The chart below illustrates some broad suggestions for alpine crack protection, considering the weight, bulk and versatility of the various protection technology. You may find it useful as a guide.

STOPPER	HEX	SLCD	PITON
SMALL CRACK	excellent	good	excellent	excellent
MEDIUM CRACK	OK	excellent	overkill	needed for icy cracks only, really
LARGE CRACK	not versatile	excellent	excellent	too bulky to carry big pins

Hooks and Pitons

Hooks can be invaluable in a number of situations. On a hairy lead, you may get so freaked out that the only resort is to whip out your hook, clip in with a sling and take a rest. Likewise, on verglas, unable to climb with your big alpine double boots, you can use a pair of hooks to overcome desperate sections. A number of hook types are available; the most difference is in the shape of the tip, which may be broad or pointed. Figure XX illustrates a selecti on of hooks commonly available. As usual, in the best alpine spirit, bring along a selection of hooks if you bring any at all. Perhaps one hook per climber, depending on the climb. If you do each carry one hook you may as well each carry a different ty pe. Particularly for alpine climbs, I advise against the Black Diamond Talon hook, illustrated in Figure XX. This is a nifty idea (sort of), but allows you to use only one of the three hooks at a time. I'd rather carry two separate hooks.

I do not leave home without at least one Leeper Cam-Hook. The elegant principle of it's use is illustrated in Figure XX. Figure XX also shows some ways of placing the Cam-Hook.. The simplicity and versatility make the Cam-Hook an essential part of my alpine (and big-wall) hardware. Don't leave home without it. Bring a pair, one wide and one narrow, perhaps. The narrow models will often fit old piton scars, as shown in Fig. XX. Get a pair and practice with them at a local crag. Find and remember their range and limits.

Pitons

Pitons, lengths of metal hammered into cracks and clipped in through an eye (see Fig. XX), are still widely carried on alpine ascents. There are two main reason for carrying pitons; one is that so metimes you find yourself faced with a hairline crack that you can only anchor with a thin piton, the other is that pitons work in ice-glazed cracks, cutting through the ice as they're hammered in.

The Black Diamond thin-pin, the 'Knifeblade ' (also used generically for other thin pins) may be the most useful alpine piton, turning otherwise unusable thin cracks into good anchors. The 'Lost Arrow' is also a trade name (Black Diamond) which has been generically applied to many types of pins wi th a thickness up to about 3/8" (about 8mm). For extremely thin cracks there are 'RURP's' (Realized Ultimate Reality Pitons) and such items as 'Crack'n'Up's. These are rarely used as protection (in contrast to knifeblades and lost arrows) and are meant to be used as steps for getting up a bit higher in aid-climbing. The Black Diamond Spectre, a large hook designed for use in ice climbing, may sometimes be hammered into a Lost-Arrow sized crack. These should be tied off as an ice screw or shallow piton , as shown in Figure XX. For more notes on the use of the Spectre, see the sections on Ice Protection and Climbing Verglas and Other Icy Rock. See Fig. XX for a selection of thin pitons and tips on their placement.

The wider the piton, ho wever, the less defensible it becomes to place one because the rock is damaged with each placement (though most damage is done during removal) and because wider ice-free cracks may be protected with stoppers and other small nuts, which weigh less. For ic y cracks, though, sometimes wider angle pitons are needed. Medium-sized angles, ranging from about 1/2" (c.1cm) to about 2" in width are generically called 'angles'. Some alpinists still will carry a few of these on a climb as they make good rappel anch ors (they are resistant to 'wiggling' out of a crack, unlike some stopper or hex placements). In fact, one of the main reasons people carry pins on alpine climbs is that they make excellent rappel anchors so long as you know how to place them securely.

Extra-large pitons, over about 2" in width, are pretty rare these days, often replaced by the less destructive jumbo-sized SLCD's described earlier. Large pins, from 3-6" wide, are generically called 'bongs' due to the 'bong-bong-bong' no ise they make when being driven into a good crack. Some medium- and larger-sized pitons and tips for placing them are illustrated in Figure XX.

Placing good pins and judging their security is a skill required of the alpinist. Get a lot of practice. Learn to recognize the ascending 'ting-ting-ting-ting !' of a good piton and the hollow 'clack' of a rotten placement. Experiment with tying off marginal pitons, as illustrated in Fig. XX. This reduces leverage on the pin under a load. It's a good idea to learn some of the other big-wall aid methods, rounding out your knowledge and preparing you for a variety of situations: see, for example, ICS Books' Big Wall Climbing edited by Michael Strassman, and Royal Robbins' classic Advanced Rockcr aft, from the old LaSiesta Press.

Placing Alpine Rock Protection in Desperate Conditions

If the crack in which you want to place the protection is choked with ice, you may be able to hack some of the ice out with an ice axe. If so, ha ck deep enough to accept the whole piece of protection and make sure you clear off all the ice on the sides of the crack. You may find it useful to bash the heck out of the ice with your hammer and then pry the loose blocks out with an axe pick or a pito n. See Fig. XX for a number of points regarding icy crack protection. If one surface of a piece of protection is on good rock but the other is pressed against ice, it may look good but the placement is useless and will blow if you load it. If you can, hack deep enough into the crack so that you can set the protection a little way inside rather than flush with the outside edge of the crack. This will reduce the chances of having rope drag pull up on the piece, tilting it against the ice at the back of the crack and perhaps levering it out. It's a good idea to clip a friction-reducing runner to any piece placed in an icy crack, particularly wired stoppers. If possible, you may as well pack some snow on top of the piece before you cast off; this may fu rther prevent it from tipping out as you labor above.

If you cannot chop out enough ice to accept the whole hexcentric, you can tie off the runner so that the load will be placed on the slotted portion only. See Figure XX for the illustrat ion of this principle.

If the crack is wide and deep, but you can't hack out the ice, consider placing a screw in the ice in the crack. This may work, though you've got to be careful. Just placing the screw may pressure the ice such that t he whole structure collapses, particularly if you use a drive-in-screw-out screw. Also, when loaded, the ice in the crack may break out in a huge slice if you fall on the screw and the ice isn't totally attached to the crack. If you need to, tie off the screw. See Fig. XX.

It may be possible to wedge or cam a piece of protection between ice and rock surfaces. This will only work on the hardest of ice. This can be a nerve-wracking test of faith, but it may be better than nothing. In t he worst cases you may need to equalize a number of anchors, as in doing an A5 move, or setting up a belay. This may make things a bit more stout. In the hairiest of all terrain you may consider carrying Yates' Screamers or Scream-Aids. These are sewn slings you clip between the protection and the rope. When a load is applied, as in a fall, the stitching begins to give way so that the sling takes more of the impact than the anchor. See Figure XX for the principle.

Finally, if you can't do anything at all with the crack at hand, and can't reach a better crack above with a pair of hooks, you may have to down-climb or traverse to look for an alternate route. Or you may be able to spot a natural feature somewhere around you; a bush, an ici cle, a frozen hummock of grass or mud; nearly anything that gives enough purchase for you to move up to that crack that's just teasing you beyond your maximum reach. Stay committed, but learn when to back off and look for alternatives, knowing that you'v e done your best.

Alpine Rock: Leading, Free Climbing

and General Considerations

Two main characteristics of alpine rock distinguish it from most other rock-climbing terrain. First, there is a conspicuous lack of fixed protection. Second, there is often loose rock on alpine routes, due both to the lack of people 'cleaning' the route and the natural forces constantly decomposing it. If you're a 'sport' climber, accustomed to bolts every eight feet or so, you're in for a nasty shock when you climb an alpine route. You're going to have to learn to place your own gear. If you're a 'traditional' climber, used to placing your own protection, you already have some valuable alpine skills; you have an idea which placements a re good, which are not so good, how often you need to place protection to stay safe, and you may be familiar with situations where you have to 'fiddle' placements, fitting them to strange features. Importantly, you may also be used to situations in which there just isn't much protection, or where the rock is loose. You'll probably encounter all of these situations (let's hope not at the same time!) on alpine rock climbs.

In sport climbing, the old maxim 'the leader must not fall' has been cast to the lions. Falling is no big deal when there are lots of bolts between you and the ground, or even a top-rope. Again, in alpine climbing things are completely different. As Jim Bridwell, one of the great 'super-alpinists', has said of alpine cl imbing - 'Falling is out.'. He's right. The leader must not fall. The anchors in alpine terrain are, usually, just to few and meager to be risked. The belays are sometimes pretty shabby as well, a patch-work of whatever you can get in at the time, how ever straightforward it may seem in a book or in pictures.

As the leader, then, how can you ensure that you don't fall? There is not much that can be said here without going into the realm of common sense: practice rock-climbing, a lot; practic e down-climbing, a lot; learn the limit of your current ability and be aware of it on the real climb; learn just how far you can push your limits, and remember this on the real climb; know when to turn back rather than pushing onward into a situation in w hich a fall could take you and your partner down the mountain; if a section is too difficult, and your ethic allows it, consider aiding the section rather than risking your life and your belayer's. Is the climb worth your life? This is what you're betti ng. I hesitate to say anything about limiting yourself, or considering aid if a section is too difficult for you to free-climb. These are personal decisions and are yours alone - don't let anyone influence your decisions here. Work them out on your o wn. Ask yourself what your are climbing for. Analyze you answer. Don't get killed for some standard you read in a magazine: the whole endeavor, start to finish, is up to you. The sole limitations are your environmental and climbing ethics, which shoul d be sound. Think this over, carefully.

Test holds ! On alpine terrain all holds should be viewed as suspect. Many times the rock is rotten and can give way suddenly. If it does, cry out 'ROCK' to warn your belayer. Same for ice. B e particularly wary when using spikes or other rock protection as anchors; give them a good thump and inspect them visually.

Place protection whenever you can. On some rock-climbs 'running out' the rope - not placing much or any protection - can be a good test of your own will and fortitude (it can also be stupid, depending on the situation), particularly when you know the belay is bombproof, as on many sport climbs. Deliberate run-outs on alpine ground, though, are the realm of the insane or incompetent. The danger is too great. As John Barry has pointed out, on an alpine climb one fallen climber usually results in two falling climbers. Common sense and healthy fear should inform you of when it's appropriate to place protection. Of co urse, you don't 'sew up' a crack with pieces every five feet (on an alpine climb you won't be carrying enough hardware anyway), but you do stay ultra-safe and, whenever you come across an immaculate slot, even if you have a nice piece just a few feet belo w, you put in protection.

Rock-Climbing Practice for the Alpinist

On ice-free rock the techniques are the same as for 'normal' climbing, usually modified by more loose rock and less anchors, and less secure anchors where they can be found. Aside from getting plenty of rock-climbing practice on good weather days, go and climb in adverse conditions as well. If it's raining or snowing, go out and do some free routes at your local crag (ok, maybe just one route for the day). You'll soon have major advantages and survi val skills beyond those of the fair-weather climber. Also, learn to climb with alpine boots and wearing gloves. Though you'll be able to climb a lot of alpine rock with bare hands, the time will come when you have to sink some fist- jams wearing wool mi tts. Learn to jam your plastic boots into off-width cracks. Remember to use your legs for power, not your arms. Find out how small a hold you can grip while wearing ski gloves or wool mittens, and find out how cold it can get before you have to put glo ves on.

Also, practice climbing while wearing a small pack. On a real climb you may need to leave the pack with the belayer and haul it up later, but sometimes you have to climb with a pack on. It's good to get used to this on a safe crag.

You can also practice iced-rock climbing techniques with your ice axes and front-pointing on rock with crampons as long as you don't damage the rock with your experiments. Though ice tools placed in cracks shouldn't necessarily damage crac ks at all, front-pointing and hooking face holds with axes can leave scratches or chips on the route. It is not, in my opinion, defensible to damage rock in the name of practice. Be careful and learn. Practice traversing and down-climbing as well. The se sessions will really help you along in the future.

Regarding ethics - I believe that climbing icy rock with crampons and axes is aid-climbing. The tools themselves are 'aid'; they separate you from the rock and are used for purchase when nothing else will do. For this reason, I don't hesitate to attach slings to my tools and use them as aiders, or hang on my tools, or rest by hanging on a chock, or whatever. Some may say that they'd rather not do the climb if they can't 'free-climb' it. Fine (for them). Establish your own ethic; what are you after? Consider what others have to say, because many do have valid points; but, ultimately, you must decide what climbing is about, and you must decide how to act. Just don't wreck the expe rience for others or compromise the natural climbing environment.

Climbing Verglas and Other Icy Rock

To the loose rock and lack of protection characteristic of alpine routes, you may often add the phenomenon of verglas, a thin coating of ice plastered on the rock, sometimes of melt-water, but also particularly after a wet snowfall or rain followed by a freeze. Verglassed rock can be horrible to climb. The jacket of ice rounds off the holds which would normally be useful, tur ning what was once a 5.5 slab into a nightmare of slippery rounded holds. In alpine conditions you'll encounter an endless variety of iced rock. Sometimes it will be covered with a lacquering of clear verglas, other times buried under white billows of r ime, a superficially beautiful but crumbling, shattering horror underfoot, formed by moist air and freezing temperatures. Whatever type of verglas you encounter, at some time you're going to be forced to climb icy rock wearing crampons and using ice axes . Techniques such as hooking, torquing and slotting are what you turn to here. These techniques are particularly common in Scotland, where the climbers are experts at iced-rock conditions and often spend their winters grappling up the same routes they c limb in summer in rock shoes. Some particular techniques (described below) may make cold climbing a bit easier, but your most valuable resource is your mind; be creative. Climbing routes where you are on ice, rock, snow and occasionally other media (fro zen grass, bushes, stumps, etc.) is usually called mixed climbing, and it can be extremely challenging and rewarding. Sometimes it can be climbed with grace, other times it is a bloody, sweaty GRUNT.

When Cracks are Choked With Ice

If the cracks in the rock are choked with ice, and you'll basically be face-climbing, adopt a style something like that which you would use on thin ice climbs (see below). You may be able to hook your way up the face with your axes, perched on cram pon front-points. This can be a trial of self-control, but it can work. Keeping one axe firmly placed, rake the wall above and around you with your pick; you may get lucky and snag on some rugosity. Test it with a steady, downward pull. If the tool do es not pop off, try to get a look the axe placement. If you're hooked on a tiny chip of ice, keep this in mind (though you're not likely to forget it !). Now, slowly and evenly pull up on the tool, taking special care not to wiggle the shaft sideways or rock it back and forth. Concentrate on using your legs and arms in unison. If you have good foot-holds it may be possible to just use the hooked tool as a balance hold rather than for a lot of support. Push with your legs as much as you can.

< dd> As for your feet, your crampons may be used to chip ice away to get at the rock beneath, and, though this is laborious over the course of a whole pitch, it can be effective, especially when you find a horizontal crack. Front-pointing on thick vergla s can work, but often results in sheets of ice popping off and climber's heart-rates soaring to the uncountable. As you make your way up, try to remember where you hooked your axes, and use these micro-ledges for your front-points. You may have to take your chances and just tap into the verglas and hope the ice holds. Of course, use your legs as much as possible. They have bigger muscles than your arms and shouldn't tire as quickly. Balance this knowledge by remembering that if you get a good axe pla cement, you can hang from it (from the loop, that is, not gripping the shaft too hard) and rest your tortured calves. If you share my opinion that you're already on aid, your normal rock-climbing ethics can go out the window. Hang from your axe, recuper ate and carry on. Don't worry about using inelegant methods such as resting on your knees or jamming a whole arm down a crack; this is no place to be dainty.

Seek pockets of ice where you can get in an ice tool. These may be off to the sid e of your line of ascent, but who's worried about a particular line ? Cracks filled with ice can be climbed with your ice tools, but is awkward for the feet. Keep one tool well above the other to prevent massive ice failure, and always try to move as hi gh above your tools as balance and safety permit. This can reduce the number of placements you have to make, saving time and energy. Figure XX illustrates the principle.

Sometimes the ice on rock is just a few millimeters thick, such that it is impossible to get a purchase with crampons and impossible to climb in boots alone. Rock shoes also turn out to be useless. Well, at this point you may have to look for a different line (seek far and wide; perhaps a pendulum?), 'switch' to real ai d or hand the lead over to your partner. Your choice of options may be influenced by your competitive spirit - though it may, by this time, be turning to Jell-O.

When Cracks are Free of Ice: Torquing

The situation is not always so dire. On some icy terrain you may find cracks in the rock which are deep and wide enough to accept the pick, hammer-head, adze or even the shaft of your axes. Torquing is putting a part of the axe into a crack and, applying some torque, using it to hold some weight (rare) or provide a balancing hold as you power upwards with legs and/or your other ice tool (often). Consider a vertical crack (in rock, or even in ice), just wide enough to accept the pick of your axe. You slot the pick and draw it d ownward in the crack, hoping against hope to find a constriction where the pick may get jammed like a stopper - but no luck, the crack is parallel and your nerves are frying. There may still be a glimmer of hope. Slide the tool in the crack to eye-heigh t so you can see what you're doing. Gripping the shaft, rotate it clockwise or counter-clockwise, so that the top and bottom edges of the pick are pressed against opposite sides of the crack. Figure XX illustrates the principle. The torqued pick may hold some weight in a lateral direction, but it is best used as a secondary support rather than a primary piece. This may sound dull in text, but in real life this technique is rather - er - 'exciting'. Torquing a pick this way can also provide a very f irm hold if you're stemming sideways (see Fig. XX). Be careful, particularly when traversing, not to torque the pick too much, as it could easily break.

If the crack does, however, have a constriction, it may be possible to slot the pick ju st like a chock; in this case you can test the piece and then yard up on it with confidence. Just be sure to keep the load on a slotted pick (not torqued) directed downward; it probably won't hold an outward pull. When torquing, remember that your pick is probably more brittle than usual, because of the cold, and that it's easy to break a tool this way. Remove your tools from cracks with care.

If you've slotted an ice tool, pulled yourself up on it and now find yourself facing a blank sec tion, consider clipping a sling to the tool (girth-hitched, close to the rock, as in Figure XX) and taking a step upwards in the sling. You may also consider stepping on the head of the tool itself to extend your reach. Be careful and apply your weight slowly, keeping it as close to the rock as possible, as shown in Figure XX.

Sometimes it will be possible to use the whole length of your axe as a chock when you're faced with a block in a chimney, or even between two rock projections. See Figure XX(a). Alternately, you may be able to use just the pick and adze or hammer this way, as in Figure XX(b). Remember to test rock holds on icy terrain, as they might just be frozen to the surface of the ice and give way under your weight. Sometim es you can identify such rocks because they just don't make any sense in the overall pattern of rocks you observe; keep your eyes open.

Also keep an eye open for horizontal cracks which you might be able to stand on with your front points, a s shown in Figure XX. You can also torque your front-points in diagonal or vertical cracks, though this can easily twist off your crampons if they're not very secure. This method is potentially dangerous because as you move upwards you instinctively wan t to press down on the torqued foot for support. Resist this temptation, and use torqued front-point placements as balance aids only.

Slotting , More Torquing and Techniques for the Desperate

It may also be possible to slot the hammer-head, shaft or adze into cracks. Again, look for a constriction. The hammer-head of some ice tools is tapered so that it works very well when slotted in a constriction (one of the few really important selling points, particularly if you're inter ested in mixed climbing; you can also file some hammer heads into a wedge - see Equipment Modification). A wide crack may be perfect for jamming in the shaft of an axe, providing a bomb-proof hold. Sometimes you can create a foot-hold with an axe jamme d into such a crack; step on the axe head (taking care that it doesn't rotate under your weight), make the next placement of axe or crampon, then reach down and remove the axe / foothold. If things get really creepy, you may find yourself needing to use the adze of an axe, either jammed in a constriction like a nut, or even torqued so that the shaft of the tool is close to horizontal (using the principle of the Leeper Cam-Hook). When you do this, keep the load as far away from the end of the shaft as po ssible - the further away from the adze that you grip the shaft, the more leverage you apply and the more likely it is that you'll hear a clear 'TINK!' followed - interestingly - by your own screams as you plummet earthward. If you do torque an adze, per haps just use it as a balance hold, and look for something more substantial to take a normal load, such as a good foot-hold.

A number of torquing and ice-tool improvisation methods are shown in Figure XX. Really, your imagination and the terrain are the only limits. Keep in mind that verglas is one of the most difficult climbing media. One more note; if you polled the gear manufacturers I'm not sure they would approve of such antics as torquing; these methods really stress your hardware . Still, they do work, and can take you across sections of rock which otherwise seem unlikely. Just be very, very careful, and inspect your tools carefully for damage.

Alpine Aid Climbing

While most alpine rock climbing will be free, often using the mixed-ground techniques described above, some alpine routes involve stretches of rock too hard to climb free; here you switch to the normally rather slow method of aid climbing. To overcome these sections quickly you must learn to aid efficiently.

Speed in alpine aid climbing is very important for reasons which will become apparent later in this book. It's all too easy to get into the 'aid mentality' and just plug along slowly. On alpine rock this just doesn't wa sh. Your belayer is freezing, it's getting dark and you didn't bring a stove; you simply must get moving. This is a far cry from having your partner belaying in comfort from a porta-ledge, with two haul bags filled with food and warm clothes hanging bel ow. Speed comes from learning how to place acceptable pieces quickly and move onto them with due confidence.

One of the faster methods of disposing of aid sections is 'leapfrogging' equipment, as shown in Figure XX. The principle is to fin d a crack with a particular width and then place one piece of gear, hang from it, place a second piece of gear above the first, hang from the second piece, then reach down and grab the first piece again and place it higher than the one you're hanging on a t the moment. The principle is very simple. Because cracks tend to vary in width the best tools for leapfrogging are those with a rather wide range of action, such as an SLCD or Tri-Cam of some sort. The main thing to remember in leapfrogging is that y ou must not forget to place protection as you go up - it's easy to forget about this if you're really cooking. Practice at your local crag.

Aid Gear for Alpine Routes

On scoping out an alpine route you may determine that the aid sections will be limited, in which case you might decide to take less and lighter gear; for example, dispensing with the micro-sized camming units in f avor of a selection of small stoppers. In these cases you end up aiding primarily with the gear you brought for free-climbing protection, supplemented with a few aid-pieces. Fair enough. On other climbs there will be more aid, and you'll have to reconc ile the weight of the aid hardware with the time you'll save by being able to aid quickly, as when you have just the right equipment. This is a balancing act which can only be improved with experience. As a general rule, I find that micro-sized camming units are excellent for aiding quickly, but you generally don't want to use them for free-climbing protection, so you end up using them for only a small part of the climb (though for this section they are very efficient): because they are also relatively heavy for the number of pieces of protection they offer, a problem is born. This is the sort of problem-solving you'll have to undertake before every climb.

Alpine routes with longer aid sections will of course require more gear. In are as such as the Bugaboos, you may be climbing a technical rock route, but with two prime alpine characteristics; variable weather and little prospect of speedy assistance in case you get hurt. Here you rack up as usual for the climb, but bring along some ice gear and appropriate clothing, depending on the season. The difference is that you then pare down your rack to the bare essentials. Learning what is and what is not required is half the battle (well, maybe a third).

A few general tips. For alpine routes with appreciable aid sections, make a pair of 'alpine aiders' from half-inch tubular webbing, as illustrated in Figure XX. These can have three loops rather than four (saving weight and bulk) and you can probably get away with just ca rrying one pair for the leader rather than two (a pair each for leader and second) as you might on a big-wall climb. The second can improvise with slings as they pass aid sections. If you only anticipate a few bits of aid, skip the double-racking harnes s of the big-wall climber and just use a spare sling over your shoulder. If this gets too heavy, consider clipping gear to your pack-straps, as shown in Figure XX. Of course, if you're carrying an ice hammer, you can dispense with a piton hammer, partic ularly if you're only taking a few pitons for the aid and/or emergency rappel anchors. When using an ice hammer on pitons, be careful not to gash your face with the pick. You may find it easier to aim the hammer if you choke up on the shaft a bit. If y ou're removing pitons with the hammer, resist the strong urge to pry them out with the pick; it will eventually break. Rather, try to use one of the methods shown in Figure XX.

If you've done some aid climbing you may be familiar with a lot of gear which is handy for extended rock routes but is too heavy and specialized for alpine climbs. See the chapter on Planning the Climb for a list of items you may be able to leave behind for alpine routes with a lot of aid.

Aid Climbing Practice for Alpinists

To become efficient at aiding you have to practice. The local crag is the safest place to learn. I suggest tackling hard free climbs and switching to aid when they become harder than you would climb on an alpine rout e because of lack of protection, frozen hands, loose rock or whatever. Of course, on established routes DO NOT place pitons for your aiding experiments. Go clean - on nuts only. Not only will you be learning to aid cleanly with small nuts, as you would likely do on an alpine route, you will preserve the rock, which must be your first concern. If other climbers direct their attention your way, dismiss them as you see fit. You are climbing the route cleanly and it is none of their business HOW you clim b so long as you don't damage the rock. You need to learn to start a free pitch, switch to aid for a few feet, and then go back to free climbing. This is often awkward and should be practiced in safety. Also practice the occasional aid climb wearing pl astic boots, just as you practice free climbing in plastic boots. This will really help in the long run as with practice you become more comfortable with three-pound weights swinging on the ends of your legs.

The best way to practice for al pine aid is to go aid-climbing in foul weather. My partner Chiu and I have a policy; if the weather is too bad for an alpine route, we go to a local crag and do an aid pitch. You'll soon find that there are few conditions which can stop a really committ ed aid-climber. Rain, hail, snow, sleet, whatever; all are powerless to stop you, so long as you're properly clothed and mentally prepared. Just as you should occasionally practice rock-climbing in rotten weather, you should do some aid pitches in a dow npour, or on a freezing day, or both. We have also found that it's invaluable practice to go climbing at night. Combine the two; if you manage to aid a full pitch in the rain, at night, you'll find yourself enriched by the experience and you'll shrug of f 'sunny-day' pitches with a chuckle. Basically, simulate the worst conditions you can imagine (the weather should take care of that) and stay committed. Remember, you're on a relatively safe crag; push yourself. Also remember that climbing in these co nditions can be dangerous! Rain can generate rockfall, and an improperly clothed belayer can end up with hypothermia. The belayer may even want to sit in a bivvy-bag, or under a tarp. One suggestion; assemble a cheap 'Foul-Weather Aid Climbing Suit' fr om the local Goodwill or army surplus; a pair of plastic overalls or one of those PVC rain suits work well. You're going to get soaked anyway (so don't worry about Gore-Tex) but the suit will slow the process and you won't mind shredding it as you would an expensive climbing costume.

Use your head and practice in all conditions. Use the alpine gear you would take on a real climb, not your normal big-wall gear. The rewards are invaluable. Really, the grade isn't that important, as in m any alpine routes you probably won't go over A3; just get used to operating effectively in bitter cold and darkness.

Descending Alpine Rock

Descending alpine rock is about the same as in fair-conditions rock-climbing - but it is often far more dangerous. If possible, it's better to down-climb than rappel. Sometimes, however, it's necessary to rappel (or abseil), and one must be proficient at safely rigging anchors and descending the rope. First, down-climbing.

Do wn-Climbing

Down-climbing is a critical alpine skill. There will come times when, for whatever reason, you cannot manage to finish the pitch you've started. In sport climbing this is nothing more than an embarrassment, and you simply lower off of a bolt, or even fall off onto a bolt and then lower down. On an alpine climb, you just don't do this sort of thing. Almost without exception, the anchors you place on alpine terrain will not be as good as bolts (and there will be less than on a sport climb), and often they're not even as good as normal rock-climbing protection placed on the lead. These are not anchors you want to weight unless you really have to. It's almost always better to down-climb than to lower off.

You m ay be tempted at first to do a lot of hanging from your arms, but in down-climbing you must use your legs as much as possible, as in any other type of climbing. Belay the leader down as usual, and if they're not retreating from leading a pitch, they shou ld place some protection on the way to save the second climber from a major fall if they come off. If the belay anchors are excellent the leader may find that it's easy to lower down, or hang on tension a lot. This is great for the leader, but not such a joy for the second, who may find themselves down-climbing really difficult sections the leader zipped happily past. Obviously this is very dangerous, particularly if the leader didn't bother to place any protection on the descent. The leader should be aware of this and protect the pitch adequately.

There is not much else I can say about down-climbing; it's an essential skill and you should practice it often. When you're at your local practice crag, or even at a climbing gym, resist the easy way out - lowering off. Down-climb. Learn to down-climb in boots as well as rock shoes. Also practice down-climbing ice; sometimes this is even more difficult, but it is also very important. Lowering off of ice protection, which is often marg inal, can be very dangerous.

Rappelling Safety Measures for Alpine Climbing

NEVER trust in situ rappel anchors without first checking them out ! EVER ! Fixed pitons may look great, but might just consist of rusted flakes of metal packed into the crack. Give them a good body-weight test (be anchored to something else !), and then some. If you must use in situ anchors, be sure to equalize them with a sling, as shown in Figure XX(a,b) or as the situation requires. For trave rsing rappels, where you need to equalize for multi-directional loads, fix the slings as in Figure XX(c). If the fixed anchor is a sling, replace it unless it is brand-new (which will be rarely) with some 7mm cord or 1" sling (always bring about 10m of 6 or 7mm 'rap-cord' in the bottom of your pack if you anticipate rappels in unknown terrain). A fixed rap sling has had an unknown number of ropes pulled through it, and the resulting friction can heat and weaken the sling. In situ rappel rings or carabi eners should be checked out carefully as well. I would suggest leaving your own carabiener rather than using one already hanging there at the anchor (take the old one home; you can use it as an accessory 'biener for aid climbing).

If you ca n place your own rap anchors, do so. Place whatever you feel is enough, and a bit more than enough, to accept a climber rappelling jerkily down on a lumpy, icy rope. Remember that jerky alpine rappels shock-load the anchors more than your smooth rock-cl imbing rappels back at home. Don't concern yourself with the monetary expense of leaving gear behind as rap anchors. Get home alive, work for a few more days, or weeks, or whatever, and replace the gear you left behind. A miserly climber may well end u p dead.

Rappelling should be a basic skill known to the rock-climber. The trick is to adapt the normal rock methods to alpine conditions. Many climbers ignore a number of safety measures which, in alpine terrain, should be standard. This is basically because in rappelling at the local crag you are less likely to slip on a patch of ice, for example, or be knocked off balance by falling rock, or lose your balance by dislodging loose rock underfoot. Still, since I began alpine climbing I n ow use most of the safety measures of alpine rappels even when I'm just rock-climbing at a practice area. This is because I detest rappelling and I'll be damned if I'm going to get the chop 'lowering off' a climb.

The most basic safety meth od for alpine rappelling is to tie the ends of the rope together before they are cast off, and then clip a locking carabiener (or doubled opposing standard carabieners) between the two ropes, and then into your harness. This way, if you lose control, at least you won't go off the end of the rope - the carabiener(s) connecting you to the 'loop' of rappel rope will catch you (if the knot is secure, anyway). See Figure XX. The only case where this measure may be ignored is when you're on what you're posit ive is the last rappel of the descent; that is, when there is no danger of coming off of the rope (as when you can see that some of it is laying on the ground below). There is no reason why you shouldn't use this method even on non-alpine climbs. A pro blem which may arise from this practice is that of having the rope - which is now a loop - snag on some projection down below in the event that you have to haul it back up to your anchors. Consider the terrain.

Another very basic saftey mea sure is to attach a safety-prussik (or other ascending knot, such as the kreutzklem; see section on Ascending Fixed Ropes) to the rappel lines above you, clip this to your harness, and then rappel. Your upper hand (not the control hand) grips the safety- prussik and slides it down the rope with you as you descend. If you slip, the knot should lock on the rope (if you're aware of the slip, you may even be able to squeeze or jerk on the knot to be sure it locks). You need to find a balance of tightness in the safety-knot, between too loose (probably won't lock if you fall) and too tight (may jam too easily on ice or half-way tapes, creating a real problem; see below). See Fig. XX. Be sure the safety prussik is within reach, though, because if it locks a nd you can't reach the knot, hanging from your harness, you're in for a long operation of rigging more prussiks and going up to release it. I can't see any reason why one would rappel without a safety-prussik. It may be a bit of a bother to tie one ever y time, at first, but it soon becomes a habit, and a good one. Far better than getting in the habit of not using it.

A potential problem exists with the use of the safety-prussik, however. If you have tied two ropes together for the rapp el, and they have 'half-way' tapes on them, your safety-knot may jam on the tapes on the way down, bringing you to a rude halt in mid-rappel. The problem is that if you're hanging from the safety-knot by your harness, it may be very difficult to get star ted rappelling again because you need to get ALL your weight off of the safety-knot before it will release and allow you to continue down. See Fig. XX. To prevent this situation you can take the half-way tapes off the rope before you go climbing, thou gh then you will have to eyeball the length of the ropes (unless it's a bi-color rope; see section on The Alpine Rope). This is up to you, of course. If you don't want to take the tapes off your ropes, and you do get hung up, there are several solutions , of course dependent on the situation. Whatever the case, the first thing to do is to tie yourself to the rope below, or at least lock the rappel device so that when you do get off the safety-knot you won't go plummeting down out of control. Now, you'r e tied to the rope, the rappel device is locked, but you're still hanging from the jammed safety-knot: your next move depends on the terrain. You may be able to knock in a piton, or slot a nut or some piece of protection that you can weight (perhaps sta nding in a sling), taking your weight off the safety-knot. You can then loosen the knot, transfer your weight to the rappel device, retrieve your hardware and carry on. If you can't get any purchase on the rock or ice before you, as when you're in a fre e-hanging rappel, you can still get out of this nasty situation. Use a sling to tie a kreutzklem (see Knots) above the safety-knot. Get your weight on the kreutzklem, preferably standing in a sling. Now loosen the jammed safety knot and then push your rappel device as far up the rope as it will go (right up under the now-free safety-knot). Now, lower your weight onto the rappel device, then untie the kreutzklem and continue down. You have to put the kreutzklem as high up the rope as possible so that you can slide your rappel device up as high as possible so that it, in turn can take your weight. Figure XX illustrates these alternate methods of getting off of a jammed safety-knot.

Obviously this is a major operation, and these are dangerous ma neuvers for someone hanging on a rope. I'd suggest getting rid of the half-way tapes before you go climbing. If you insist on keeping the half-way tapes, consider using the Bachmann knot for safety (see Ascending a Fixed Rope). This way, if you get hun g up on the tapes, or ice on the rope, you just free the snag by working the carabiener back and forth (be sure to have the control rope LOCKED). Though you won't get hung up every time you pass the half-way tapes, once is enough to make you consider jus t getting rid of them.

Yet another method to ensure safety on an alpine rappel is useful at least for the first person rappelling: belaying the rappeller. If there is a spare rope (which will likely be unusual) it can be used by the climbe r at the rappel station to belay the first person going down. If you have a spare rope, you may as well belay. If you feel you want a belay and have tied your only two ropes together for a full-length rappel, you can tie off one rope, rappel on it and u se the other rope as a belay line. This only works for the first person going down, of course, as the second climber must untie the knot so the rope can be retrieved. Once the first rappeller is down, they'll find it hard to belay quickly enough for the second person coming down (again, if there's a spare rope), and may have some work to do at the station anyway (such as setting new anchors for the next rappel). If this is the case, the least they can do is tie the belay line off to the anchors so that if the rappeller loses control, they'll at least be caught by the spare rope. This would, of course, put a major shock on the anchors. If the rappeller is using a safety-knot, and has clipped in between the knotted rappel lines (as described above), it is very unlikely that they will come completely off the main rappel lines. Again, the situation will determine what the safest method.

All of these safety methods are basically protecting you against losing control of the speed of your rap pel. You can lose control in a number of ways. One of the most common is having the rappel device or safety-knot lock up, then losing control while fiddling around trying to solve the problem. A number of very competent climbers have met their end this way. You must protect against such snags as the situation demands. Remember that icy ropes may jam in your rappel device. If you have a Sticht-type belay device and have removed the spring (I have done this to prevent it from getting tangled in slings and other equipment), keep this in mind. If you do get hung up, don't get so absorbed in solving the problem that you forget to protect yourself by locking the rappel device and tying into the rope. Two methods of locking the control rope are shown in Figure XX.

If you're rappelling into the unknown, remember to have a second prussik or kreutzklem ready so that, if needed, you can get back up. You simply use the ascender knots wrapped around both ropes, as shown in Figure XX.

Finally, before you rappel check that the rope is not going to be cut by sharp rock or ice as you descend. Even rounded rock projections can saw a rope in two if the rock is 'grainy' enough, with large, sharp crystals. Pad if necessary, perhaps with a bit of foam cut from your sleeping mat.

Tangled and Snagged Rappel Ropes

Tangled ropes can spell disaster. To prevent them, try to lower the ropes down the rappel line rather than cast them off. Of course, this isn't always possible and you'll often have to cast off the ropes. Do not use the 'mountaineer's coil' to do this, as it can easily tangle. An almost sure-fire tangle-free method of casting off ropes is illustrated in Figure XX. Learn this at home ! For 100m rope s, or doubled 50m ropes, it's easier to coil half the length (as shown in Figure XX), drop it off, and then repeat with the other half. Before you cast off the ropes, be sure they're rigged to the anchors, and when you throw them, don't just let them jer k on the anchors unnecessarily; catch the load with your hands.

After the rappel, there is always the possibility that the ropes can get snagged above and can't be pulled back down (this is a DRAG, to put it mildly). If you are using two ro pes tied together, get into the habit of rigging the rappel so that you always pull the same color rope, preventing the knot from hanging up on the rappel sling. The knot may get hung up on some projection down the face; keep an eye out for such dangers on your way down and consider them when you pull the ropes. If you use a single 50m rope (or a 100m rope, for a full 50m rappel), there is no knot and you're much less likely to have these problems. If only one end of the rope is hung up (it happens) an d you have much of the rope on the ledge with you (e.g. after a short rappel), consider cutting the rope and carrying on down. If you are forced to climb up to retrieve the rope, take extreme caution. Don't hang on the rope and ascend it with jumars, ho wever solid it feels. Follow the procedure outlined below and illustrated in Figure XX.

First, tie in to one end of the rope. Now, tie off the other end to the belay anchors. Grab some gear and start climbing, aiding if necessary. Try ve ry hard not to fall. As you climb up, place protection and clip it into the other rope (which is tied to the belay below) . If you fall and the snag fails, you are at least tied into the rope, and the anchors below you, and the protection you placed on the way up may catch your fall. On your way up, you should re-tie into the rope every twenty feet or so, as there is no belayer taking up the slack. To do this, tie a new figure-eight knot, clip it to your harness with two locking carabieners and the un clip and untie the previous knot, as shown in Figure XX. When you reach the hung up rope, unsnare it and re-rig the rappel anchors so that the same snag won't occur again. As you rappel, remove the protection you placed on the way up. This will require you to lock the belay occasionally as you work on removing hardware, so be sure to have a saftey prussik on your rappel lines. These methods are illustrated in Figure XX, and would be modified as the situation required. To avoid these complications, I suggest a single 100m x 9mm rope (this is not infallible, but I think it is the best option). Such a rope is discussed in the section on The Alpine Rope.

Final Notes on Alpine Rock Rappels

Get into the habit of checking your ra ppel set-up before each rappel. A mental checklist should include the following: be sure the anchors are secure and equalized; be sure that you have threaded your rappel device correctly; be sure that your harness is properly fastened; be sure that you h ave tied off the ropes below or have atttached a saftey knot to the ropes. Depending on the situation, you may want to have the ropes tied together and have yourself clipped between the ropes with a sling and carabiener attached to your harness (as discu ssed above). You will have to decide for yourself which saftey measures you want to use; as using all of them at once can be dangerously clumsy. Think it over carefully and stay ultra-safe.

Objective dangers in alpine rappels include the p ossibility of rockfall or icefall chopping your rope. There's not much you can do about this except avoiding the danger area in the first place (by good timing of your ascent and descent) or perhaps stopping to wait out the rockfall or icefall under some protective feature of the mountain.

By now it should be clear: rappelling on an alpine route is normally far more dangerous than on 'normal' rock climbs because of the increased possibility of losing control on the rappel. I suggest usin g maximum, redundant safety measures on alpine rappels.

Improvised Rappel Brakes

At some time you may end up needing to rappel in the absence of your trusty belay/rappel device. Never fear. There are a number of methods availa ble which you probably encountered in rock-climbing books but never needed. Resurrect them now. A selection are illustrated in Figure XX(a-c). Perhaps most useful are those utilizing equipment the alpinist will rarely be without; a couple of carabiener s, an axe, or a drive-in screw, or a piton. It's even possible to use a large hex, as shown in Figure XX(d), as a rappel device. The principle is to introduce enough friction so that you can control your descent, as well as be able to lock the rappel i f you need to. Icy ropes won't always fit through normal belay/rappel devices; use an improvised method.

If you're ever forced into using a body rappel (see Figure XX for a number of these), don't forget your safety-prussik.

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