Heather's Roman Theatre Web Site

Welcome to Heather's Roman Theatre Web Site

This web page was composed for the San Diego State University Theatre 460A final project. I hope you find the information presented here useful as well as interesting. This page is a work in progress, and I will try to updated it weekly. Please feel free to e-mail me with questions or comments about the site.

This is an outline of the information presented on this web site. If you click the outline heading you will be taken to the appropriate passage.

Roman History
Roman Theatre

Roman Festivals
Production Arrangements

Costumes and Masks
Roman Playwrights

Comedic
Dramatic

Minor Dramatic Types
Architecture of Roman Theatre
The Finale of Drama in Rome

Bibliography

Roman Vocabulary

A Basic Roman History

The nature of Rome's founding is not quite clear. There are many myths and speculations of how the great empire was established. Historical records from that time period are insufficient, so Rome's history is largely based on patriotic legends and myths. A popular legends begins with the brothers Amulius and Numitor, the sons of King Proca of Alba Longa. Amulius dethrones his brother and makes Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia (Ilia) a Vestal Virgin. Mars, the god of war, became enchanted with Rhea Silvia and she bore him twin sons--Romulus and Remus. When Amulius found out about their births he became convinced that they would mature and eventually try to kill him and take the throne. To avoid this fate, he ordered their deaths and had them set afloat in a basket on the Tiber River. The twins landed on the shore of Germanus and were found and nursed by wolves. They grew up and eventually returned to their homeland. After Remus has a quarrel with Amulius' swine and cowherd, he is taken to Numitor and the twins discover their true origins. The twins then reinstate Numitor as the rightful king.

According to myth, the twins wanted to found a new city, but could not decide which of them would find the site. They decided to consult the gods through augury. Remus sat on the Aventine and saw six vultures fly overhead, but Romulus, who sat on the Palatine, saw twelve vultures. Since Romulus saw more vultures than his brother, it was decided that he was favored and should found the new city. Consequently, Romulus founded the city of Rome around 753 B.C. It was said that Romulus decided to set the city boudaries with a plough. Remus jumped over the boundaries in jest, and Romulus lost his temper and killed his brother. The new city was not much more then a small settlement, and had virtually no women, so Romulus invited the neighboring tribe of the Sabines to a harvest festival. When their guests arrived, the Romans abducted six hundred Sabine daughters at swordpoint. From such humble beginnings, Rome flourished as a city, and became the center of arts and government for the largest empire the world had ever witnessed.

Roman Theatre

The Romans were remarkable in their ability to adapt the unique elements they found in other cultures and assimilate them into their culture. They discovered drama in Greek colonies in Sicily and Southern Italy and brought it back with them to Rome. The Etruscans, who lived to the north of Rome, were seen to be decadent and weak. However, the Etruscans were more developed and civilized than the cultures in the east, and they were also influenced by Greek culture. The Romans eventually recognized the merits of Etruscan culture and borrowed many forms of entertainment from their northern neighbors. Among these novel Etruscan entertainments were several varieties of musical and dancing performance, chariot racing, boxing, and the infamous gladiator games. These new diversions became so popular that the Romans turned to then to appease their gods when a plague ravaged their city in 364 B.C. Roman drama became extremely popular and was eventually incorporated into the majority of other entertainments. This created a circus-like atmosphere that encompassed Roman theatre.

Livius Andromicus created the first regular theatrical performances in Rome in 240 B.C. He was a black slave brought from Egypt. His works were alterations of Greek theatre practices. He took pre-existing Greek plays and tried to improve on them and increase their appeal to the Roman populace. He is regarded as the father of Roman dramatic and epic poetry. He also translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin verse. It wasn't long before plays were being written by native-born writers. By approximately 200 B.C. the Romans had successfully adapted Greek drama to their own unique cultural preferences.

Roman Festivals

Most were religious or civic festivals (ludi).
They were free events that were held in Circus buildings with a pit.
They were first given only at Roman Games (Ludi Romani).
Ludi Romani is the oldest and most famous Roman festival. Originally held in honor of Jupiter Optimus Maximus as a votive offering if Victory were won in Battle. They were celebrated in the Circus Maximus following the triumphal procession (pompa) from the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. By 366 B.C., they were no longer associated with triumphant parades, but had become an annual event for several weeks in September.
Later, more festivals were added and the number of occassions for presenting plays was also expanded.
In 78 B.C. 48 days of the year were devoted to festivals featuring dramatic performances.
By 354 A.D. there were 175 public festivals, of which 101 were devoted to theatrical spectacle.
By the time of Plautus and Terrance in the 2nd Century, Plays were given at four primary Festivals.
Ludi Pleii was established in 220 B.C. and held in November with at least three days devoted to theatrical performance. This Ludi was used to bolster public morale during the Second Punic War with Hannibal.
Ludi Appolinares began in 212 B.C. and was held in July with about two days devoted to drama.
Ludi Megalenses was held in April and initiated in 204 B.C. Six days were devoted to theatrical entertainments.

Production Arrangements

The expenses were paid for by the state or by wealthy citizens.
The officials in charge were called Praetor/Aedile. They contracted with a manager (dominus gregis) of a theatrical company who was then responsible for all details of the production. He could choose to have his own group perform the plays. This was the beginning of acting companies.
Each manager was assured a sum of money and given prizes for success if the play was enjoyed.
The manager bought the scripts and possessed the production rights.
Admission was free to everyone, and the seats were not reserved.
The audience was very unruly.
The theatre of Terrance and Plautus were likely temporary scaffolding.
The actors were non-citizens and usually slaves.
The style of acting was more presentational. The actors addressed their lines to the audience.
Women were allowed to be actors at this time.

Costumes and Masks

The costumes in Roman theatre varied with the type of play.
Some playwrights wrote of Roman characters and their costumes resembled daily Roman garments.
Plautus and Terrance adapted their plays from Greek New Comedy and altered their costumes acordingly.
Most of the characters in Roman comedy were typed, therefore, the costumes became very standardized.
The use of color was very important and meaningful to the Romans.
There is evidence that certain colors were associated with particular occupations, moods, and social status.
Yellow was for courtesans, red for slaves.
Color was also used in the wigs.
All the actors wore masks. Masks made the doubling of actors' roles easier.
Each actor in a comedy also wore thin sandals, called soccus.

Click here to visit Ancient Roman Empire Costume Links at The Costumer's Manifesto

Roman Playwrights

Roman Comedic Playwrights
Conventions of Roman Comedy

Based on Greek New Comedy.
The Chorus was eventually abandoned.
The play had no acts or scenes.
Musical elements were scattered throughout the play. Much like modern musicals.
Plots were based on everyday domestic affairs, mistaken identities, and misunderstandings of motives or deliberate deceptions.
Characters were based on the affairs of the well-to-do middle class.
The characters were clearly defined types: the old man, the young man, the coward, the slave, the parasite, the courtesan, the slave dealer, and the soldier.
All the action a comedy took place on the street.

The only comedic Roman works to survive were composed by Pluatus and Terrence.

Titus Maccius Plautus (254-184 B.C.)

20 Extant plays include: Amphitryon, The Pot of Gold, The Captives, The Braggart Warrior, and The Twin Menaechmi.
He used a single plot structure and complicated intrigue.
"Situational Sex Comedy" - focused on physical comedy.
The physical comedy placed cleverness on the characters who were inferior, like the slave character.
He eliminated the chorus.
The musical elements are scattered throughout the play.
About two thirds of the lines are accompanied by music.
The average number of songs per play is three.
He explains dramatic situations with an expository prologue.
Develops farcical possibilities in episodes that follow.
Classified as comedies of situation and farces.
His plays are often about mistaken identities.
Plautus makes loosely veiled jokes about theatre at the beginning.
All important information is repeated.
His main intention is to entertain the audience.
Characters are motivated by selfishness and materialistic interests.
None of the characters are admirable.

Publius Terentius Afer (Terrence) (195-159 B.C.)

Terrence was a native of North Africa. He was brought to Rome as a slave, but was later freed because of his ability to write.

He wrote only six plays: The Woman of Andros, The Self-Tormenter, The Eunuch, Phormio, The Mother-in-Law, and The Brothers.
He used a double plot structure.
There was no expository prologue.
He did not use a chorus.
There were no songs.
Music accompanied half of his dialogue.
He was interested in surprise and suspense.
He used verbal wit as comedy.
Misunderstandings were used for sentimental effects when Terrence emphasized problems between lovers or parent-child realationships.
He treated characters with sympathy and delicacy.
His work is classified as Romantic Comedy.

Roman Drama
Roman Dramatic Playwright

Lucius Annaius Seneca (4 B.C.- 65 A.D.)
Roman tragedy was generally an unsuccessful attempt to reproduce tragic works in the Greek style. The scenes and situations were horrifying. The characters were either completely good or completely evil, and used bombastic speech. The only Roman tragedies that exist today are based upon the works of Seneca. Seneca came from a prominent family and was well educated. His father concentrated on writing technical rhetoric and he had a profound influence on his son. Seneca eventually started to write speeches for emperors and generals. He became the first speech writer known in history. In 49 A.D., Seneca was made a praetor and appointed tutor to Nero, the adopted son of the Emperor Claudius. Nero became emperor in 54 A.D., when Claudius died. Seneca gave Nero guidance and tried to guide the boy to become a responsible young man. However, by 62 A.D., Seneca had lost all control over Nero. Seneca's inhewrited and acquired wealth made Nero jealous. The young emperor attempted to have Seneca poisoned but failed. In 65 A.D., after Seneca had retired, he was implicated in a conspiracy to kill Nero. Seneca was sentenced to death, and committed suicide under imperial order.

Nine plays in existence, five are adapted from the plays of Euripedes.
His most famous play is Thyestes.
He was a Roman philosopher, dramatist, and statesman.
His plays were probably never produced.
He wrote philosophical tragedies.
Seneca was a major influence on Rennaissance playwrights.
The first person known who used graphic blood and violence.
Play subtly poked fun at the Empire.
Gods or the chorus do not intervene in his plays.

Structure of Seneca's Plays

Plays are divided into 5 acts by choral interludes.
Wrote elaborately, work tends to resemble rhetoric display.
Moral philosopher: filled plays with "sentia." A sentia is a brief moral conclusion, resembling a proverb, about human behavior.
Moral lessons taught through horrifying examples.
Many violent actions.
Preoccupied with magic and death, frequently used ghosts and magical rites.
Main character is dominated by a single motive which drives him or her to their doom (usually revenge).
Characters often lack self-control.
Technical devices: soliloquies, asides, and often used a confidante.

Minor Dramatic Types
After the first Century B.C., there were no known authors making a living from comedy or tragedy, however, a number of other dramatic forms were developed and performed in Rome. The other forms of entertainment included the fabula Atellan, mime, and pantomime.

Fabula: Roman word for play

Fabula Atellana: a short farce.

Used the same types of characters: Maccus, a fool or stupid clown; Bucco, a glutton or braggart; Pappus, a foolish old man; and Dossenus, a cunning swindler.

Mime Troupes or "Strolling Players"

Earliest record of mime dates back to 211 B.C.
Very short, topical, lively, satirical plays.
Music often used.
In the beginning they were improvised.
Female roles played by female actors. Mime was the first form to make use of actresses.
Actors did not use masks.
Subject drawn from urban life.
Mime later became distasteful
Themes dealt with adultery, unnatural vices, and indecent language.
The Christian religion objected to mime groups because of their themes and performances.
The mime groups retaliated by ridiculing the sacraments and the beliefs of the church.

Pantomime

A wordless dance of a certain topic or theme.
The dance told a story with music.
Performed by a single actor who played many roles.
Each role was indicated by a mask with a closed mouth.
Often serious and drawn from mythology.
A chorus narrated the story.
Music was played by an orchestra and was composed of flutes, pipes, cymbals, and other percussion instruments.
Largely replaced tragedy.

Popular with the ruling classes.
Theatre went into a further decline after the Roman Empire superseded the Republic in 27 B.C. Gladiator events sometimes used the orchestras or stages of theatres. Even more evidence of this decline is that some of the orchestras were flooded for water ballets or sea battles (called naumachia).

Amphitheatres and circuses held many events such as human-animal fights, chariot racing, acrobatic shows, gladiatorial contests, and sea battles.
Architecture of Roman Theatre

The first theatre built from original Roman plans was constructed in Pomeii in about 75 B.C.
Rome had it's first permanent theatre in 55 B.C.
Rome would build theatres wherever it conquered new lands.

Construction

Constructed on ground level.
Stagehouse and auditorium were the same height and formed one building.
The orchestra was a half circle.
The seats of the auditorium followed the line of its circumference.
It seated between 10,000 and 15,000 spectators.
The stage was raised five feet.
There was a permanent architectural background called the scaenae frons.
The scaenae frons had at least three doors in the rear wall and one at either end of stage. It was two to three stories high and was decorated with columns, niches, statues, and porticoes. They were often gilded or painted.
In 133 B.C. a curtain was used and it rolled into the floor.
The Roman Stage had a roof.

Roman Theater Construction Illustrations

Follow this to a very informative Roman Theatre architecture site.

The Finale of Drama in Rome
The Emperor Constantine, who ruled from 312 A.D. to 337 A.D., recognized Christianity as the official religion of Rome. The moral degradation of Roman theatre caused the Christians to put increasing pressure on the empire to close the theatres. In the fifth century, mime performers were excommunicated and their souls were damned to hell. In the sixth century, theatres were closed by Pope Justinian because he decreed that they were an evil influence on the populace. The most probable reason for the complete abandonment of the theatre was constant invasion from northern, "barbarian" tribes. The fall of the Roman Empire is still a highly controversial topic. However, it is safe to assume that, whatever the cause, those conditions that caused Rome's decline directly impacted Roman theatre. Eventually, as the Empire crumbled, Romans most likely spent the majority of their leisure time attending events that helped them forget their troubles and allowed them an avenue to focus their frustrations. The gladiator games likely became more popular than the theatre, and dramatic audiences surely evaporated. As the great Empire's infrastructure finally collapsed, so did the theatres.

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