���������������������� WELCOME TO THE HOME OF
   THE INTERNATIONAL DISARMAMENT ORGANIZATION
�����WORLD� DESTRUCTION?
������� WORLD� PEACE?
                                      ���������������        INTRODUC TION

���������� ��������������
MANKIND IS AT A CROSSROAD AT THE START OF THE 21ST CENTURY.   MANKIND MUST DECIDE WHETHER THE KNOWLEDGE OF WHAT THEY LEARNED PERTINING TO NUCLEAR WEAPONS IS TO BE USED FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES OR WHETHER FOR DESTRUCTIVE PURPOSES.

        
There are enough nuclear weapons in the world today to destroy the planet Earth hundreds upon hundreds of times over with some still left over.� The planet Earth faces a serious crisis.� Since the middle of the 20th century, mankind has been developing a wide array of nuclear weapons, without really knowing and understanding the full consequences of what was being developed.�

�������������� In order to try and curtail the spread of nuclear weapons throughout the world, the governments throughout the world have created a nuclear "club".� This nuclear club was formed by international law by the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) signed in 1970. This treaty declares that only five nations {US, Russia, France, China, and Great Britain} may lawfully possess nuclear weapons, but that all other nations may not be prohibited from acquiring peaceful nuclear technology. It also specifies that the five nuclear powers must seek to reduce and eliminate their arsenals as quickly as possible.� At the present time, about 178 of the 185 member nations of the UN have signed the treaty. Holdouts include: India, Israel, and Pakistan; all of whom are believed to have nuclear weapons capability, if not actual weapons. Some nations who are parties to the treaty have pursued, or believed to be pursuing weapons are: Iraq, North Korea, Libya, and Iran. South Africa, which recently admitted to having developed an arsenal in the 1980s, has destroyed the arsenal and has since signed the pact.

������������� With the breakup of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Union), four nations came into existence with� inheriting nuclear weapons: Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Belarus. It was agreed by these nations that Russia would be the designated successor to the Soviet Union under NPT. All have now signed the NPT, and all nuclear warheads have been removed to Russian soil.���

������������� Throughout the long history of the civilized world, the number one goal for mankind has always been for peace to be on the planet Earth.� However, with the threat hanging over mankind from an increasing number of Nations either having or getting the capabability of using nuclear weapons and the knowledge of and using of chemical and biological weapons, this goal is becoming harder and harder to achieve.

�������������� Mankind has been trying to achieve this goal since 1945, with the creation of an international body known as the
United Nations. The name "United Nations" was devised by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and was first used in the "Declaration by United Nations" of 1 January 1942, during the Second World War, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their Governments to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers. However, this international body had its origin from the "Atoms for Peace " speech given by President Eisenhower on December 8, 1953.� The United Nations Charter was drawn up by the representatives of 50 countries at the United Nations Conference on International Organization, which met at San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945. Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States at Dumbarton Oaks in August-October 1944. The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was not represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States. The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and by a majority of other signatories.
��
�������������� The United Nations was established in the aftermath of a devastating war -- World War II --� to help stabilize international relations and give peace a more secure foundation. Amid the threat of nuclear war and seemingly endless regional conflicts, peace-keeping has become an overriding concern of the United Nations. In the process, the activities of blue-helmeted peace-keepers have emerged as the most visible role associated with the world organization.��� However, since its inception, there have been over 300 mini conflicts throughout the world.� Out of these mini conflicts, the
Security Council has dispatched over 50 peacekeeping missions throughout the world.� Currently peacekeeping operations number 14 (MONUC, UNMEE, UNAMSIL, MINURSO, UNTAET, UNMOGIP, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNFICYP, UNOMIG, UNDOF, UNIKOM, UNIFIL and UNTSO).� Although not achieving total peace throughout the world, the United Nations, has been instrumental in preventing these mini conflicts from erupting into major ones -- thus helping to prevent another World War.

�������������� Prior to the maufacturing of nuclear along with chemical and biological armaments by certain Nations, war meant human suffering and environmental destruction for only a certain region of the world.� Then once "peace" was obtained, the peoples from that particular region went about their business of rebuilding and starting life all over again.� However, this situation has changed drastically with more and more Nations either obtaining or already having the knowledge of how to build nuiclear armaments along with chemical and biological armaments and other armaments of mass destruction.� With the prospect that on any given day a conventional conflict could reupt throughout a certain region of the world (Middle East, India/Pakistan border, etc.), this scenario is dreaded because there is the constant threat and realistic possibility that such a conflict could trigger a nuclear conflict.

�������������� Unlike in the past, in a nuclear conflict certain areas of the world would not only be effected, but to a larger extend, vast areas throughout the planet Earth would be effected one way or another.� Besides the human side, some of the other areas effected by a nuclear conflict would consist of the animal and plant lifes, the environment and a
global warming affect throught the world.

�������������� Since mankind has started using nuclear power plants, there have been on at least three (3) instances whereby significant release of radioactive material have occurred and which has effected both the environment along with the plant, animal and humans living around those nuclear plants.� Listed below is a list of three three (3) incidents:

��������� Scotland������������������� Windscal (now
Sellafield)�������� 1957
��������� United States������������
Three Mile Island ����������������� 1979
��������� USSR������������������������
Chernobyl ����������������������������� 1986

This can be readily seen with the nuclear accident at Chernobyl on April 26, 1986.�

Once a nuclear war has been fought, people simply will not be able to go about their daily business or rebuilding and starting life all over.� Therefore, in short, there shall be no winners -- only losers.

�������������� There are currently two possible ways in which the discovery of atomic energy can be applied.� One way is to use it for the benefit for mankind.� The other way is to use it for the producing the means of mass destruction.���� Unfortunately, the second way -- producing the means of mass destruction and using use weapon -- has already been used.� The only two nuclear bombs to be used in wartime were detonated over
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in August 1945.� Each destroyed an entire city, although both were of quite low energy yield by today's standards.

�������������� Therefore, the production of arms control and disarmament confronting the world today is of vital importance for mankind to survive.� Its solution has the highest priority for the preservation of peace and security for mankind.� The continuation of the arms race produces nothing but increase mistrust in the relationship amongst Nations, aggrevates international tensions and intensifies the danger of the outbreak of a new war -- truly the end of all wars with the use of nuclear weaponry and other weapons of mass destruction.

��������� With the end of the "cold war" (a term used throughout the 50s? until the late 80?s), mankind was under the assumption that the threat of total world destruction had past. However, with the breakup of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic, numerous nations where created under the old Union of Soviet Socialist Republic and in so doing they inherited some the nuclear arsenals. With numerous Nations in recession and in need of capital, these newly created nations along with Russia started "selling" the nuclear technology to whoever would buy it. Even though both the United Nations along with the United States of America where totally against such policy and tried helping these various nations out throughout the world, certain individuals in key positions saw a means of making a fast profit ? by selling either the nuclear technology itself that was needed to create nuclear weapons or by the actual selling of the parts themselves, either the means of delivering such nuclear weapons or even the nuclear material itself, namely plutonium.

���� Instead of having this threat eliminated with the end of the "cold war", the nuclear situation is even worse now then at the height of the "cold war". Instead of having only certain nations having the capability of either developing and then possession nuclear weapons, now-a-days there are anywhere from 30-40 nations with either possession nuclear weapons or have the capability of developing nuclear weapons.

���� Now with the threat of complete world destruction of every life form ? every animal and plant life from the face of the Earth ? mankind has slowly started to realize the immense destructive power of a nuclear weapon. Therefore, mankind has been trying to find ways of eliminating this immense threat. With all of the arms control treaties signed and currently in force, there hasn?t been one that has dealt with the specific destruction of nuclear material, i.e. plutonium and uranium. All the previous agreements have dealt with the delivery systems, i.e. intercontinental-, intermediate-range-, medium-range-, ballistic missiles, submarine-launched ballistic missiles, etc.

���� None of these arms control treaties and agreements have dealt with the actual nuclear material. With the destruction of the delivery systems, the nuclear material is still around thereby allowing such material to be placed on other delivery systems. A plan, consisting of a treaty along with verifiable procedures is needed in order to eliminate the nuclear material. It is only then that the threat hanging over the planet Earth will be truly reduced.

���� The purpose of this rather lengthy document deals not only with the destruction of the actual delivery systems but also with the destruction of nuclear material. This document is divided into three (3) main parts, with each part having several sections in each:

����
Part 1 - dealing with nuclear materials is divided into three (3) main sections:

��������� Section 2:� Hiroshima and Nagasaki

��������� Section 3:�
Nuclear Material:

������������������������� *� Background� information about
Plutonium;
������������������������� *� Background information about
MOX;
������������������������� *� Background information about
Uranium;
������������������������� *� The
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
������������������������� *� Disposition of Plutonium:
:
���������������������������������� *� Canister
���������������������������������� *� Deep Borehole

����
Part 2 - deals with the various nuclear power plants and rectors throughout the world.� In addition to the location, background information on each of these nuclear power plants can be obtained.

��������� Section 1:� Nuclear Power Plants Throughout the World:

������������������������� *�
North America � ������ *��� Asia
������������������������� *�
South America �������� *�� East Asia
������������������������� *�
Africa ����������������������� *�� West Asia
������������������������� *�
Europe �������������������� *�� Russia
���������
��������� Secton 2:�
Nuclear Plant power information:

����������������������� *�
United States ��������� *� Russia ������������� *� Other Nations
���������������������������
����
Part 3 - deals with a complete listing of the known nuclear testing which have been conducted by the various nuclear power Nations since 1945.

��
Part 4 - is divided into three (3) main sections:

����������������� *� Section 1 deals with both the nuclear weaponry along with the delivery systems.� As such this section is divided into two (2) subsections.

������������������������ *
Subsection 1: Nuclear-Weapon Nations � [NOTE:� As defined by paragraph 3 of Article IX of the Non-Proliferation Treaty - "For purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear device prior to 1 January 1967."� However, I have included the Nations of India and Pakistan in this category because of those two Nations exploding nuclear devices in May, 1988.]

���������������������������������� *�
United States of America
���������������������������������� *�
Russia
���������������������������������� *�
People's Republic of China
���������������������������������� *�
France
���������������������������������� *�
United Kingdom
���������������������������������� *�
Pakistan
���������������������������������� *�
India

������������������������
*� Subsection 2:� Nations Capable or Actually have produced Nuclear Weapons:

���������������������������������� *�
Iran
���������������������������������� *�
Iraq
���������������������������������� *�
Israel
���������������������������������� *�
Democratic Republic of North Korea
���������������������������������� *�
Belarus
���������������������������������� *�
Cuba
���������������������������������� *�
Kazakhstan
���������������������������������� *�
Libya
���������������������������������� *�
Syria

����������������� *� Section 2:� Poor Man's Weapons -
Chemical Weapons

�����
Part 5 - pertains to the� with the complete ruling from the International Court of Justice on the "Legality of the Use of Nuclear Weapons"

����
Part 6 - pertains to a proposed Treaty which I have been working on dealing with the general and complete disarmament of all nuclear weapons along with chemical weapons throughout the world.� As such, this Part deals with the following:

��������������� the
Treaty

��������������� � the establishment of an International Disarmament Organization whose job would be to assist the present United Nations in its role for disarmament.� The role of the International Disarmament Organization would be
not to replace the United Nations but only to assist it.�� ["Statute for the Establishment of the International Disarmament Organization"]
�������������� *� the establishment of a
United Nations Peace/United Nations Peace Reserve Forces whose job would be to provide stability throughout the various regions of the world.

������������������������ *� a Protocol which depicts the stationing of the United Nations Peace Forces throughout the world thereby providing international peace and security;

�������������� *� The establishment of Verification Procedures which would be used by the Verication Council along with its subsidary committees and its inspection teams in verifying full compliance by all the Nations of the provisions of the Treaty.� ["
Statute for the Verification Procedures for the Implementation of the Treaty on Complete and General Disarmament of Strategic Offensive/Defensive Nuclear, Chemical, Bacteriological (Biological), Radiological, Toxin Armaments of Mass Destruction of the Same Calibre or Types Toward A Peaceful Coexistence Between The Peoples of the World"]

      
                                                             
GLOBAL OVERVIEW                

There are currently five nations considered to be "nuclear weapons nations". In actual fact, several more nations have developed nuclear weapons but do not publicly admit to having deployed them (in particular India, Israel, and Pakistan). The three smaller Soviet successor states that inherited nuclear arsenals (Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Belarus) have now relinquished all nuclear warheads which have been removed to Russia.


    
Declared Nuclear Weapons States:

          China     France     India     Pakistan     Russian Federation     United Kingdom     United States of America


    
Nuclear Capable States

     Algeria     Argentina     Austrialia     Austria
     Bangladesh     Belgium     Brazil     Bulgaria
     Canada     Chile     Colombia     Democractic People's Republic of Korea
     Egypt     Finland     Germany     Hungary
     Indonesia     Iran (Islamic Republic of     Israel     Italy
     Japan     Mexico     Netherland     Norway
     Perus     Poland     Romania     Republic of Korea
     Slovakia     South Africa     Spain     Swedan
     Switzerland     Turkey     Ukraine     Viet Nam    
     Zaire


Nuclear Weapon Treaties


As stated above, the five nation nuclear "club" is codified in international law by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) signed in 1970. This treaty declares that only the five nations mentioned above may lawfully possess nuclear weapons, but that all other nations may not be prohibited from acquiring peaceful nuclear technology. It also specifies that the five nuclear powers must seek to reduce and eliminate their arsenals as quickly as possible. No nation has admitted deploying a nuclear arsenal since this date, indicating that it has successfully stigmatized nuclear weapons acquisition. Also no signatory to the pact has yet successfully acquired nuclear weapons after joining NPT. It has not however dissuaded several nations from pursuing these weapons, in some cases successfully. At present, about 178 of the 185 member nations of the UN have signed the treaty. Holdouts include: India, Israel, and Pakistan; all of whom are believed to have nuclear weapons capability, if not actual weapons. Some nations who are parties to the treaty have pursued, or believed to be pursuing weapons are: Iraq, North Korea, Libya, and Iran. South Africa, which recently admitted to having developed an arsenal in the 1980s, has destroyed the arsenal and has since signed the pact.
It should be noted that although Iraq made substantial progress in pursuing nuclear weapons while a member of NPT, no NPT safeguarded facilities contributed to this effort. In fact, no safeguarded facility has ever been shown to contribute to a nuclear weapon effort after having been placed under safeguards (other than to simply increase the technical experience of the operating nation). It is only through secret programs, conducted entirely outside NPT, that nations have been able to pursue nuclear weapons. While the NPT regime is scarcely foolproof, it has been effective in preventing the diversion of civilian nuclear technology and facilities placed under safeguards.
Four nations that came into existence with the breakup of the Soviet Union inherited nuclear weapons: Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Belarus. It was agreed by these nations that Russia would be the designated successor to the Soviet Union under NPT. All have now signed the NPT, and all nuclear warheads have been removed to Russian soil.
The NPT was originally of limited duration, its initial 25 year period expired in 1995. The NPT Review and Extension Conference was held in New York from 17 April to 12 May, 1995. Of the 178 signatories, 175 attended. More than half of the signatories (111) sponsored renewal, this time indefinitely instead of a limited duration. As a result of majority sponsorship, the treaty extension was enacted without a formal vote. Three resolutions were also adopted that reaffirmed, clarified, and strengthened the basic NPT approach. Three signatories to the original pact, such as Iran, opposed extending the pact at all and boycotted the proceedings.
There is a non-treaty alliance called the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) to which most industrialized countries belong. This organization restricts the access of dual-use technology to countries suspected of pursuing nuclear arms.


Other treaties restricting nuclear arms inclu
de:

Name of Treaty:  GLOBAL OVERVIEW
There are currently five nations considered to be "nuclear weapons nations". In order of acquisition of nuclear weapons these are: the United States of America, Soviet Union/Russia, United Kingdom, France, and China. In actual fact, several more nations have developed nuclear weapons but do not publicly admit to having deployed them (in particular India, Israel, and Pakistan). The three smaller Soviet successor states that inherited nuclear arsenals (Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Belarus) have now relinquished all nuclear warheads which have been removed to Russia.

Nuclear Weapon Treaties

The five nation nuclear "club" is codified in international law by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) signed in 1970. This treaty declares that only the five nations mentioned above may lawfully possess nuclear weapons, but that all other nations may not be prohibited from acquiring peaceful nuclear technology. It also specifies that the five nuclear powers must seek to reduce and eliminate their arsenals as quickly as possible. No nation has admitted deploying a nuclear arsenal since this date, indicating that it has successfully stigmatized nuclear weapons acquisition. Also no signatory to the pact has yet successfully acquired nuclear weapons after joining NPT. It has not however dissuaded several nations from pursuing these weapons, in some cases successfully. At present, about 178 of the 185 member nations of the UN have signed the treaty. Holdouts include: India, Israel, and Pakistan; all of whom are believed to have nuclear weapons capability, if not actual weapons. Some nations who are parties to the treaty have pursued, or believed to be pursuing weapons are: Iraq, North Korea, Libya, and Iran. South Africa, which recently admitted to having developed an arsenal in the 1980s, has destroyed the arsenal and has since signed the pact.

It should be noted that although Iraq made substantial progress in pursuing nuclear weapons while a member of NPT, no NPT safeguarded facilities contributed to this effort. In fact, no safeguarded facility has ever been shown to contribute to a nuclear weapon effort after having been placed under safeguards (other than to simply increase the technical experience of the operating nation). It is only through secret programs, conducted entirely outside NPT, that nations have been able to pursue nuclear weapons. While the NPT regime is scarcely foolproof, it has been effective in preventing the diversion of civilian nuclear technology and facilities placed under safeguards.

Four nations that came into existence with the breakup of the Soviet Union inherited nuclear weapons: Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Belarus. It was agreed by these nations that Russia would be the designated successor to the Soviet Union under NPT. All have now signed the NPT, and all nuclear warheads have been removed to Russian soil.

The NPT was originally of limited duration, its initial 25 year period expired in 1995. The NPT Review and Extension Conference was held in New York from 17 April to 12 May, 1995. Of the 178 signatories, 175 attended. More than half of the signatories (111) sponsored renewal, this time indefinitely instead of a limited duration. As a result of majority sponsorship, the treaty extension was enacted without a formal vote. Three resolutions were also adopted that reaffirmed, clarified, and strengthened the basic NPT approach. Three signatories to the original pact, such as Iran, opposed extending the pact at all and boycotted the proceedings.

There is a non-treaty alliance called the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) to which most industrialized countries belong. This organization restricts the access of dual-use technology to countries suspected of pursuing nuclear arms.


Other treaties restricting nuclear arms includ
es:

Name of Treaty
: Antarctic Treaty
Signatures:  40 nations (1994)
Effective Date:  4 August 1963
Details:  Prevents military use of Antarctic including stationing or testing nuclear weapons

Name of Treat
y: Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
Signatures:  US, USSR, UK
Effective Date:  4 August 1963
Details:  Prohibits nuclear tests above ground, underwater, or in space

Name of Treat
y: Outer Space Treaty
Signatures:  93 nations (1994)
Effective Date:  anuary 1967
Details:  Prohibits nuclear tests in space

Name of Treat
y: Treaty of Tlatelolco
Signatures:  USA, and all of South America except Argentina and Brazil (24 nations in 1994)
Effective Date:  1967
Details:  Bans nuclear weapons from South America

Name of Treat
y: Limited Test Ban Treaty
Signatures:   120 nations (1994)
Effective Date:   1968
Details:   Prohibits nuclear tests above ground, underwater, or in space

Name of Treat
y: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
Signatures:  186 nations (April 1997)
Effective Date:  1968, renewed indefinitely 11 May 1995
Details:  Prohibits the development or transfer of nuclear weapons or related technologies by and to non-weapon holding states. As of April 1997 the principal non-signers are Israel, India, Pakistan, Cuba and Brazil

Name of Treat
y: Seabed Treaty
Signatures:   88 nations (1994)
Effective Date:   1971
Details:  Prohibits deployment of weapons of mass destruction on the the sea floor beyond the 12-mile coastal sovereignty limit.

Name of Treat
y: SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks I)
Signatures:   US, USSR
Effective Date:   26 May 1972
Details:  Placed limits on arsenals for both signatories, no destruction of existing arsenals is called for. Duration was until 3 October 1977, but both nations agreed to continue to abide by its limits

Name of Treat
y: Threshold Test Ban Treaty
Signatures:   US, USSR
Effective Date:   1974
Details:  Restricted underground nuclear tests to 150 kilotons

Name of Treaty:
Protocol - Threshold Test Ban Treaty
Signatures:  US, USSR
Effective Date:  1974
Details:  Additional criteria for the restriction of underground nuclear tests

Name of Trea
ty: SALT II (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks II)
Signatures:  US, USSR, UK
Effective Date:   18 June 1979 (never ratified)
Details:  Placed tighter limits on arsenals, some weapon destruction is required to meet them

Nasme of Trea
ty: South Pacific Nuclear Free-Zone (Roratonga) Treaty
Signat
ures:  11 nations (1994)
Effective Date:  1985
Deatils:  Prohibits testing, deployment, or acquisition of nuclear weapons in the South Pacific

Name of Trea
ty: Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
Signatures:  US, USSR
Effective Date:  8 December 1987
Details:  Eliminated short and medium range nuclear missiles. All such weapons were destroyed

Name of Trea
ty: START I (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks I)
Signatures:   US, USSR
Effective Date:  1991 (went into effect 5 December 1994)
Details:  Reduces arsenals by about 30%. The original signatory USSR has since dissolved, and the states of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and recently Ukraine have endorsed the treaty by signing the START I Protocol. As a result of Ukraine's joining NPT, the treaty went into effect in December 1994

Name of Trea
ty:  START II (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks II)
Signatures:  US, Russia
Effective Date:  1993; US Senate ratification 1996, ratified by Russian Duma, April, 2000
Deatils:  Reduces deployed (active duty) arsenals of both the US and Russia to 3000-3500 warheads by 2003 and bans MIRVed ICBMs (but not SLBMs). No warheads are actually required to be destroyed. This treaty was finally ratified by the US Senate on 26 Jan. 1996 by a vote of 87-4. A rider attached by the Senate prohibits compliance with treaty terms unless it formally goes into effect. US planning for stockpile management accordingly assumes maintenance of the higher START I levels for the indefinite future

Name of Trea
ty: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)/Protocol
Signatures:   111 (as of 6 November 1996)
Effective Date:  10 September 1996
Detatils:  This treaty was intended to ban all nuclear tests (based on a negotiated definition of "nuclear test") by all nuclear weapon possessing states (declared or undeclared). Tests by current non-weapons states is already banned by the NNPT. After several years of work, treaty negotiations conducted under the auspices of the 61-nation Conference on Disarmament in Geneva earlier this year successfully enlisted support by all five declared nuclear powers. The final draft, proposed by Dutch negotiator Ramaker in June, required signature by the non-declared weapon states: India, Pakistan, and Israel, for the treaty to go into effect.

India, a supporter of the CTBT concept for many years, came out in open opposition to the final draft - declaring that it could not sign the treaty unless it contained a time table for all nuclear powers to destroy their arsenals (a requirement not directly connected with the purpose of the treaty - banning tests). It quickly became apparent that India's 11th-hour opposition was total - that it proposed to use all available means to obstruct the treaty. Since the ground rules for the Conference required unanimous support for treaty approval, India's opposition led to the abandonment of treaty negotiations on 22 August.The other states however cast about to find an alternate avenue of treaty approval, and Australia offered to submit the treaty directly to the UN General Assembly for approval. On 9 September a resolution calling for approval was introduced into the UN General Assembly by Australia, and it was approved by voice vote the next day. It was opened for signature Tuesday, 24 September when President Clinton followed by the foreign ministers of the four other declared nuclear powers -- Russia, China, Britain and France -- all signed.

The CTBT will not enter into force, though, until all 44 countries with nuclear reactors have signed and ratified it. Of these states, 38 have signed. The six remaining states were Algeria, Bangladesh, Egypt, India, North Korea, and Pakistan. India has stated definitely that it will not sign the pact, and Pakistan has stated that it would not agree to the pact until India does so. The treaty requires a conference in three to four years for members to decide how to accelerate the ratification process should India and others still refuse to join the pact. Clinton is expected to ask the US Senate to ratify the treaty early in 1997, according to US officials. But the United States will not deposit the ratification papers until all the nuclear powers as well as those suspected of having or close to having a bomb -- India, Pakistan and Israel -- are ready to do s
o.
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