|
Chemical |
Biological |
||||||
Country |
Possession |
Possible |
Signed CWC3 |
Ratified CWC3 |
Program |
Possible |
Signed BWC4 |
Ratified BWC4 |
Algeria |
Possible5 |
Unknown |
01/13/93 |
08/14/95 |
Research effort, but no
evidence of production6 |
Unknown |
No |
No |
Canada |
Former7 |
-mustard gas |
01/13/93 |
09/26/95 |
Former program9 |
-anthrax |
04/10/72 |
09/18/72 |
China |
Probable11 |
Unknown |
01/13/93 |
04/25/97 |
Likely maintains an
offensive program12 |
Unknown |
- |
11/15/84* |
Cuba |
Possible13 |
Unknown |
01/13/93 |
04/29/97 |
None/Unknown |
None/Unknown |
04/10/72 |
04/21/76 |
Egypt |
Probable14 |
-mustard gas |
No |
No |
Research program16 |
-anthrax |
04/10/72 |
No |
Ethiopia |
Probable18 |
Unknown |
01/14/93 |
05/13/96 |
None/Unknown |
None/Unknown |
04/10/72 |
05/26/75 |
France |
Former19 |
-mustard gas |
01/13/93 |
03/02/95 |
Former program21 |
Unknown |
- |
09/27/84* |
Germany |
Former22 |
-phosgene |
01/13/93 |
08/12/94 |
Former program24 |
-plague |
04/10/72 |
11/28/72 |
India |
Known26 |
Unknown |
01/14/93 |
09/03/96 |
Defensive research |
Unknown |
01/15/73 |
07/15/74 |
Iran |
Probable28 |
-mustard gas |
01/13/93 |
11/03/97 |
Research with possible |
Unknown |
04/10/72 |
08/22/73 |
Iraq |
Known; |
-mustard gas |
No |
No |
Previously active research
and production program; under UN inspection; retains elements of its program33 |
-anthrax |
05/11/72 |
06/19/91** |
|
Chemical |
Biological |
||||||
Country |
Possession |
Possible |
Signed CWC3 |
Ratified CWC3 |
Program |
Possible |
Signed BWC4 |
Ratified BWC4 |
Israel |
Probable35 |
Unknown36 |
01/13/93 |
No |
Research program, |
Unknown |
No |
No |
Italy |
Former38 |
-mustard gas |
01/13/93 |
12/08/95 |
None/Unknown |
None/Unknown |
04/10/72 |
05/30/75 |
Japan |
Former40 |
-phosgene |
01/13/93 |
09/15/95 |
Former program42 |
-anthrax |
04/10/72 |
06/08/82 |
Libya |
Probable44 |
|
No |
No |
Research program46 |
Unknown |
- |
01/19/82* |
Myanmar |
Probable47 |
Unknown |
01/14/93 |
No |
None/Unknown |
None/Unknown |
04/10/72 |
No |
N. Korea |
Probable48 |
-adamsite |
No |
No |
Research program50 |
-anthrax |
- |
03/13/87* |
Pakistan |
Probable52 |
Unknown |
01/13/93 |
10/28/97 |
None/Unknown |
None/Unknown |
04/10/72 |
09/25/74 |
Russia |
Known53 |
-VX |
01/13/93 |
11/05/97 |
Defensive research program;
some work beyond legitimate defense activities may continue55 |
-anthrax |
04/10/72 |
03/26/75 |
|
Chemical |
Biological |
||||||
Country |
Possession |
Possible |
Signed CWC3 |
Ratified CWC3 |
Program |
Possible |
Signed BWC4 |
Ratified BWC4 |
S. Africa |
Former57 |
-cyanide |
01/14/93 |
09/13/95 |
Former program59 |
-anthrax |
04/10/72 |
11/03/75 |
S. Korea |
Probable61 |
Unknown |
01/14/93 |
04/28/97 |
None/Unknown |
None/Unknown |
04/10/72 |
06/25/87 |
Sudan |
Possible62 |
Unknown |
05/25/99 |
05/29/99 |
None/Unknown |
None/Unknown |
No |
No |
Syria |
Probable63 |
-mustard gas |
No |
No |
Research program65 |
-anthrax |
04/14/72 |
No |
Taiwan |
Probable67 |
Unknown |
No |
No |
Possible research program68 |
Unknown |
04/10/72 |
02/09/73 |
U.K. |
Former69 |
-phosgene |
01/13/93 |
05/13/96 |
Former program71 |
-anthrax72 |
04/10/72 |
03/26/75 |
U.S. |
Known73 |
-mustard gas |
01/13/93 |
04/25/97 |
Defensive research |
-anthrax |
04/10/72 |
03/26/75 |
Viet Nam |
Possible77 |
Unknown |
01/13/93 |
No |
None/Unknown |
None/Unknown |
- |
06/20/80* |
Yugoslavia, Federal
Republic of (FRY) |
Known78 |
-sarin |
No |
No |
None/Unknown80 |
None/Unknown |
04/10/72 |
10/25/73 |
*Denotes countries which acceded
to the treaty.
1 This chart summarizes data available from open
sources. Precise assessment of a state's capabilities is difficult because most
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs were, and/or are, secret and cannot
be independently assessed.
2
Known-
where states have either declared their programs or there is clear evidence of
chemical weapons possession
3 "Signatory States to the Chemical Weapons
Convention," Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons [Online]
http://www.opcw.nl/memsta/namelist.htm.
4 "Ratifications to the BTWC," Stockholm
International Peace Research Institute [Online] http://www.sipri.se/cbw/docs/bw-btwc-rat.html.
See
also
"Parties and Signatories of the Biological Weapons Convention," U.S.
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency [Online] http://www.acda.gov/treaties/bwc1.htm#3
** Iraq ratified the BWC following the adoption of U.N. Security Council
Resolution 687, which in addition to establishing UNSCOM, also
"invited" Iraq to ratify the 1972 Convention (Paragraph 7). S/RES/687
(8 April 1991) [Online] gopher://gopher.undp.org/00/undocs/scd/scouncil/s91/4.
5 Algeria may be developing chemical weapons.
Anthony H. Cordesman, "Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East:
National Efforts, War Fighting Capabilities, Weapons Lethality, Terrorism, and
Control Implications" (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International
Studies, 1998), p. 13, cited in "Algeria: Weapons of Mass Destruction
Capabilities and Programs," Center for Nonproliferation Studies [Online] http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/algeria.htm.
6 Algeria is reportedly conducting research into
biological weapons, but there is no evidence of a production effort.
Cordesman, "Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East: National
Efforts, War Fighting Capabilities, Weapons Lethality, Terrorism, and Control
Implications," p. 13, cited in "Algeria: Weapons of Mass Destruction
Capabilities and Programs," Center for Nonproliferation Studies [Online] http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/algeria.htm.
7 During World War II,
Canada manufactured chemical munitions and purchased both lewisite and phosgene
from the U.S. Army. In 1946, following the war, Canada destroyed its chemical
weapons stockpile.
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), The Problem of
Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume II: CB Weapons Today (New York:
Humanities Press, 1971), p. 187.
See
also
John Bryden, Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937-1947 (Toronto:
McClelland & Stewart Inc., 1989).
8 As part of its World War II chemical weapons
program, Canada produced mustard gas and phosgene and procured quantities of
mustard gas, lewisite, and phosgene from the United States.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume II: CB Weapons
Today, p. 187.
9 The Office of Technology
Assessment includes Canada in a list of countries that have admitted to having
had "offensive [biological] weapon munition supplies or development
programs in the past."
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Proliferation of Weapons of
Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks, (Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office, August 1993) p. 63.
Canada's
biological weapons program began in 1941 and included U.S. scientists. In 1942,
the Canadians also began collaborating with the United Kingdom's biological
weapons effort.
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), The Problem of
Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of CB Weapons (New
York: Humanities Press, 1971), p. 118-119.
See also
John Bryden, Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937-1947.
10 In its work with the
United States and the United Kingdom, Canada conducted research on several
biological agents, including anthrax, botulinum toxin, ricin, rinderpest virus,
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, plague, and tularemia.
John Bryden, Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937-1947, pp.108, 120,
210, 218, 223, 243.
Stockholm
International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), The Problem of Chemical and
Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of CB Weapons, p. 118-119.
11 Rear Admiral Thomas
Brooks, Director of Naval Intelligence, identified China as a
"probable" chemical weapons possessor in testimony before Congress.
Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks, Director of Naval Intelligence, statement before the
Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical Materials, U.S. Congress,
House of Representatives, Committee on Armed Services Hearings on National
Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993 before the Committee
on Armed Services, 102nd Congress, Second Session, March 7, 1991
(Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1993), p. 107.
China
was referred to by the U.S. Department of Defense as producing and
"capable of using a wide variety of agents."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Defense, 1997) [Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/ne_asia.html#china.
An article in The Economist suggests that China might "have
destroyed [its] chemical weapons before signing the CWC."
"Chemical Weapons. Just Checking," The Economist 347 (May 2,
1997), p. 42.
12 The DOD states that it
is likely China has "maintained an offensive biological warfare program
since acceding to the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/ne_asia.html#china.
ACDA
reports that "there are strong indications that China probably maintains
its offensive [biological] program."
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), Adherence to and Compliance with
Arms Control Agreements: 1997 Annual Report to Congress (Washington, DC:
U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, 1997) [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/annual/comp97.htm.
13 The following are as cited in a chart in Gordon
M. Burck and Charles C. Flowerree, International Handbook on Chemical
Weapons Proliferation, (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), pp. 168-171.
14 Rear Admiral Thomas
Brooks identified Egypt as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in
testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
A
summary chart included in an article by Anthony H. Cordesman indicates that
Egypt has a stockpile of chemical weapons.
Anthony H. Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift
in the Cost of War and Terrorism," Stability and Instability in the
Middle East, Volume III (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and
International Studies) [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html
.
See also
Dany Shoham, "Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt," The
Nonproliferation Review, 5 (Spring-Summer 1998), pp. 48-58.
For further information on Egypt's weapons of mass destruction programs and
capabilities, see the CNS country profile on the "Weapons of Mass
Destruction in the Middle East" web page at http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/egypt.htm.
15 Egypt likely possesses
sarin, VX, mustard and phosgene.
Shoham, "Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt," p. 49.
Russian
intelligence reports that Egypt has assimilated "techniques for the
production of nerve and blister agents."
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," in Proliferation
Threats of the 1990's, Hearing Before the Committee on Governmental
Affairs, United States Senate, 103rd Congress, First Session,
February 24, 1993 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1993) p. 92.
16 "The United States
believes that Egypt had developed biological warfare agents by 1972. There is
no evidence to indicate that Egypt has eliminated this capability and it
remains likely that the Egyptian capability to conduct biological warfare
continues to exist."
ACDA Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control Agreements: 1997 Annual
Report to Congress [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/annual/comp97.htm.
A
Russian intelligence report cites Egypt as having "a program of
military-applied research in the area of biological weapons." It also
states that there is no evidence that weapons for military use have been
developed.
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 93.
"Egypt appears to have developed several natural pathogens and toxins as
warfare agents and has recently taken the first steps to acquire a capability
for the genetic engineering of microbial pathogens."
Shoham, "Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt," p. 56.
Cordesman cites Egypt as researching biological weapons.
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," (see chart) [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html.
17 This list represents those agents on which Egypt
has reportedly conducted applied research.
Shoham, "Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt," pp. 54-55.
18 Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Ethiopia
as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in testimony before
Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
19 In a 1988 speech to the
United Nations, French President, Mitterrand claimed that France had no chemical
weapons, and would produce none.
Victor A. Utgoff, The Challenge of Chemical Weapons: An American Perspective
(New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991), pp. 123-124.
An
article in The Economist suggests that France might "have destroyed
[its] chemical weapons before signing the CWC."
"Chemical Weapons. Just Checking," The Economist, p. 42.
20 At the start of World War II, the French had a
stockpile of mustard gas and phosgene.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of
CB Weapons, p. 117.
Testing of chemical weapons occured at a cite called B2-Namous in Algeria.
Vincent Jauvert, "Quand la France Teste des armes chimiques en
Algerie," Le Nouvel Observateur (Oct. 23-29, 1997), pp. 10-22.
21 The Office of Technology Assessment includes
France in a list of countries that have admitted to having had "offensive
[biological] weapon munition supplies or development programs in the
past."
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Proliferation of Weapons of
Mass Destruction, p. 63.
22 Following World War II, "West Germany
unilaterally renounced the manufacture of nuclear, biological and chemical
weapons." With the signing of the revised Brussels Treaty in 1954 and the
establishment of the Western European Union, West Germany's pledge not to
manufacture NBC weapons became an international commitment subject to
verification.
Utgoff, The Challenge of Chemical Weapons: An American Perspective, pp.
90-91.
23 Germany's World War II
stockpile of chemical weapons included phosgene, cyanide, mustard gas, sarin,
and tabun.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume II: CB Weapons
Today, p. 127.
The
Germans also reportedly produced soman.
John Bryden, Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937-1947, p. 181.
24 Germany's World War II biological weapons
program was not institutionalized until the establishment of a research station
at Posen in 1943. As Soviet forces moved toward the Posen facility in March
1945, work at the station ended--"without having accomplished anything
very startling."
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of
CB Weapons, p. 117.
25 Plague, cholera, typhus, and yellow fever were
among the agents studied by Germany's biological weapons program. SIPRI, The
Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of CB Weapons,
p. 117.
26 Under the CWC India has
declared possession of a chemical weapons program.
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/so_asia.html#india.
"India
says chemical arsenal revelations won't hit security," Agence France
Presse, June 26, 1997.
27 "India has research and development
facilities geared toward biological warfare defense."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/so_asia.html#india.
28 Russian Federation
Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After the Cold War:
Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 98.
Rear
Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Iran as a "probable" chemical
weapons possessor in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
Iran is identified by DOD as able to produce agents and capable of using them
on a limited scale.
Proliferation: Threat and Response, [Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/meafrica.html#iran.
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html
.
For further information on Iran's weapons of mass destruction programs and
capabilities, see the CNS country profile on the "Weapons of Mass Destruction
in the Middle East" web page at http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/iran.htm.
29 Iran reportedly
stockpiled cyanide, phosgene, and mustard gas after 1985.
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html.
"At
present the industrial production of mustard gas and sarin has been established
in Iran."
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 98.
Iran "has manufactured and stockpiled chemical weapons, including blister,
blood, and choking agents"
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),Report of Proliferation-Related
Acquisition in 1997 (Washington, DC: U.S. Central Intelligence Agency,
1997) [Online] http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/acq1997.html#Iran.
30 Iran "possesses
[the] expertise and infrastructure to support biological warfare program. May
have small quantities of agent available; seeking larger capability."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/meafrica.html#iran.
"Iran
probably has produced biological warfare agents and apparently has weaponized a
small quantity of those agents."
Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control Agreements: 1997 Annual Report
to Congress [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/annual/comp97.htm.
Iran may be "involved in active [biological] weapons production, but no
evidence to date that this is the case."
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html.
"Western countries have noted attempts by Iranian representatives to buy,
unofficially, technology and biological materials used specifically for the
production of biological weapons, in particular" mycotoxins.
Graham S. Pearson, "The Threat of Deliberate Disease in the 21st
Century," Biological Weapons Proliferation: Reasons for Concern,
Courses of Action (Washington, DC: The Henry L. Stimson Center, January
1998) p. 31.
31 Iraq's chemical weapons
program "suffered considerable damage from Coalition bombing and UNSCOM
destruction," but it is likely that Iraq "has hidden precursor
chemicals, agents, munitions, documentation for future effort." In
addition, Iraq "has rebuilt key portions of production facilities for
commercial use."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/meafrica.html#iraq.
"Iraq
retains the technology it acquired before the war and evidence clearly
indicates an ongoing research and development effort, in spite of the UN
sanctions regime."
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html.
United Nations, United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), "Latest
Six-Monthly Report" (April 16, 1998) [Online] http://www.un.org/Depts/unscom/s98-332.htm.
See also
E.J. Hogendoorn, "A Chemical Weapons Atlas," The Bulletin of the
Atomic Scientists (September/October 1997), p. 38.
For further information on Iraq's weapons of mass destruction programs and
capabilities, see the CNS country profile on the "Weapons of Mass
Destruction in the Middle East" web page at http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/iraq.htm
and CNS's "Special Collection on the Iraq Crisis" web page at http://cns.miis.edu/research/iraq/index.htm.
32 In the past Iraq
produced mustard gas, sarin, tabun, and VX.
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/meafrica.html#iraq.
Cordesman,
"Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost of War and
Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html.
United Nations, United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), "Fourth Report
under Resolution 1051" (June 10, 1997) [Online] http://www.un.org/Depts/unscom/s97-774.htm.
33 "Despite Coalition
bombing, UNSCOM destruction, and UN sanctions and monitoring, Iraq may retain
elements of its old program, including some missile warheads."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/meafrica.html#iraq.
"The
United States believes that Iraq is capable of producing biological warfare
agents and is probably intent on continuing its offensive BW efforts if the
threat of UNSCOM inspections and long-term monitoring are removed."
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), Adherence to and Compliance with
Arms Control Agreements: 1995 Annual Report to Congress (Washington, DC:
U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency) [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/complian.htm.
United Nations, United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), "Latest
Six-Monthly Report" (April 16, 1998) [Online] http://www.un.org/Depts/unscom/s98-332.htm.
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html.
34 According to ACDA, Iraq
produced anthrax, botulinum toxin, aflatoxin, ricin, wheat cover smut (economic
weapon), and researched Clostridium perfringens (gas gangrene),
hemorrhagic conjuctivitis virus, rotavirus, and camel pox.
ACDA, Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control Agreements: 1995 Annual
Report to Congress [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/complian.htm
Iraq's
biological weapons program worked with anthrax, botulinum toxin, gas gangrene,
aflatoxin, trichothecene mycotoxins, wheat cover smut, and ricin.
Graham S. Pearson, "The Threat of Deliberate Disease in the 21st
Century," Biological Weapons Proliferation: Reasons for Concern,
Courses of Action (Washington, DC: The Henry L. Stimson Center, January
1998) p. 27.
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html.
United Nations, United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), "Fourth Report
under Resolution 1051" (June 10, 1997) [Online] http://www.un.org/Depts/unscom/s97-774.htm.
35 Rear Admiral Thomas
Brooks identified Israel as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor
in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
Israel
has completed extensive research into gas warfare and defense and may have some
production facilities. Additionally, Israel may have stocks of bombs, rockets,
and artillery.
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html
.
The London Sunday Times reports that Israeli F-16 fighters have been
equipped to carry chemical weapons and that their crews have been trained on
the use of such weapons.
Uzi Mahnaimi, "Israeli Jets Equipped For Chemical Warfare," London
Sunday Times, October 4, 1998.
For further information on Israel's weapons of mass destruction programs and
capabilities, see the CNS country profile on the "Weapons of Mass
Destruction in the Middle East" web page at http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/israel.htm.
36 While it is unclear exactly what chemical agents
Israel may produce, Dutch officials have identified that an El Al 747 that
crashed in Amsterdam in 1992 was carrying a shipment of DMMP destined for
Israel. DMMP is a nerve gas precursor used in the manufacture of sarin gas.
Uzi Mahnaimi, "Israeli Jets Equipped For Chemical Warfare," London
Sunday Times, October 4, 1998.
37 Israel has conducted research into weapons and
defense and has the ability to produce biological weapons; however, there is no
indication of a production effort.
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html
A
Russian intelligence report indicates that Israel has a biological research
program of a general nature "in which elements of a military-applied
purpose are present."
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 94.
The London Sunday Times reports that Israeli F-16 fighters have been
equipped to carry biological weapons and that their crews have been trained on
the use of such weapons.
Uzi Mahnaimi, "Israeli Jets Equipped For Chemical Warfare," London
Sunday Times, October 4, 1998.
38 As part of the 1947 Peace Treaty, Italy is
forbidden from possessing chemical weapons, even for deterrent purposes.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume II: CB Weapons
Today, p. 187.
39 The Italian chemical weapons inventory during
World War II included mustard gas and phosgene.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of
CB Weapons, p. 292.
40 The Economist reports that Japan
ended its chemical weapons program "years ago," placing it together
with Britain, which ended its program in the 1950s.
"Chemical Weapons. Just Checking," The Economist, p. 42.
While
Japan might have ended its CW program years ago, it remains legally responsible
for hundreds of thousands of chemical munitions it abandoned in China during
World War II. In an article discussing the problems involved in disposing of
the weapons left behind in China, a Japanese newspaper reports that
"[s]ince Japan's postwar defense forces do not have chemical
weapons,'there is no section in the Japanese government that is completely
familiar with neutralization of chemical weapons.'"
Masato Ishizawa, "Chemical Weapons Return to Haunt Japan: Bombs Left in
China Pose Dangerous Task of Removal, Disposal," The Nikkei Weekly,
January 20, 1997, p. 1.
Chinese officials claim that the Japanese left over two million chemical
munitions in China, while Japanese officials insist the number is closer to
700,000.
"Chemical weapons," Mainichi Daily News, July 28, 1998, p.2.
George Wehrfritz, Hideko Takayama, and Lijia MacLeod, "In Search of Buried
Poison," Newsweek 132 (July 20, 1998).
For further information on Japan's abandoned chemical weapons in China, see
Hongmei Deng and Peter O'Meara Evans, "Social and Environmental Aspects of
Abandoned Chemial Weapons in China," The Nonproliferation Review, 4
(Spring-Summer 1997), pp. 101-108.
See
also,
"Abandoned and Old Japanese Chemical Weapons," [Online] http://www.tcp-ip.or.jp/~e-ogawa/CWMENU.HTM.
41 Japan's World War II stockpile of chemical
weapons included phosgene, chloropicrin (a lung irritant), cyanide, mustard
gas, and lewisite.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume II: CB Weapons
Today, p. 127.
42 Between 1937 and 1945, Japan operated a
biological weapons program in occupied Manchuria.
United States Army, Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases
(USAMRIID), "Medical Defense Against Biological Warfare Agents Course:
History of Biological Warfare" [Online]
http://140.139.42.105/content/BioWarCourse/HISTORY/HISTORY.html (accessed
October 1998).
43 In its eight years of operation, the Japanese
biological weapons program examined anthrax, tularemia, plague, botulinum
toxin, smallpox, glanders, typhoid, and typhus for potential weapons use.
USAMRIID, "History of Biological Warfare," [Online]
http://140.139.42.105/content/BioWarCourse/HISTORY/HISTORY.html (accessed
October 1998).
44 Russian Federation
Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After the Cold War:
Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 100.
Rear
Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Libya as a "probable" chemical
weapons possessor in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
Libya produced blister and nerve agents in the 1980s and is currently
constructing an underground chemical agent production facility at Tarhunah.
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response, http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/meafrica.html#libya.
Libya "continues to pursue an independent production capability for"
chemical weapons.
CIA, Report of Proliferation-Related Acquisition in 1997 [Online] http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/acq1997.html#Libya.
For further information on Libya's weapons of mass destruction programs and
capabilities, see the CNS country profile on the "Weapons of Mass
Destruction in the Middle East" web page at http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/libya.htm.
45 "In the early
1990s, Rabta was reportedly capable of producing the blister agent
sulphur-mustard and the deadly nerve agents sarin and tabun...In March 1990,
American and German intelligence sources claimed that Libya had produced
approximately 30 tons of mustard gas at Rabta." Another plant was also
reported to produce lewisite.
Joshua Sinai, "Libya's Pursuit of Weapons of Mass Destruction," The
Nonproliferation Review, 4 (Spring-Summer 1997), p. 94.
According
to a Russian source, Libya has produced mustard gas, sarin, and phosgene.
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 100.
46 According to the DOD,
Libya's biological weapons program is in the research and development stage.
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/meafrica.html#libya.
"Libya
has the expertise to produce small quantities of biological equipment for its
BW program and...is seeking to move its research program into a program of
weaponized BW agents."
ACDA, Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control Agreements: 1997 Annual
Report to Congress [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/annual/comp97.htm
"There is information indicating that Libya is engaged in initial testing
in the area of biological weapons."
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 100.
47 Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Myanmar as
a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
48 Joseph S. Bermudez, Jr.,
The Deterrence Series, Case Study 5: North Korea (Alexandria, VA:
Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute, 1998), p. 5.
Rear
Admiral Thomas Brooks identified North Korea as a "probable" chemical
weapons possessor in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
The DOD reports that North Korea "[p]roduces and is capable of using a
wide variety of [chemical] agents."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/ne_asia.html#north.
49 Joseph S. Bermudez, Jr.,
The Deterrence Series, Case Study 5: North Korea (Alexandria, VA:
Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute, 1998), p. 5.
"North
Korea has a chemical weapons program that, according to the CIA, includes
mustard and blister agents."
Institute for National Strategic Studies, Strategic Assessment 1997,
Flashpoints and Force Structure (Washington, DC: National Defense
University Press, 1997) [Online] http://www.ndu.edu/ndu/inss/sa97/sa97ch11.html.
50 North Korea "[p]ursued biological warfare
research and development for many years. Possesses biotechnical infrastructure
capable of supporting limited biological warfare effort."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/ne_asia.html#north.
Joseph
S. Bermudez, Jr., The Deterrence Series, Case Study 5: North Korea, p.
11-12.
51 Joseph S. Bermudez, Jr.,
The Deterrence Series, Case Study 5: North Korea, p. 12.
Russian
intelligence reports that North Korea is conducting military applied research
on anthrax, cholera, bubonic plague and smallpox.
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 99.
52 Rear Admiral Thomas
Brooks identified Pakistan as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor
in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
"Pakistan
has the ability to transition from research and development to chemical agent
production."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/so_asia.html#india.
"[R]esearch of an applied military nature is being conducted" by
Pakistan in the area of chemical weapons.
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 101.
53 The Department of Defense reports that research
into chemical weapons continues in Russia, with Russian officials asserting
that it is for defensive purposes only.
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/fsu.html#russia.
54 "Chemical weapons
distribution at the Russian Storage sites," Stockholm International Peace
Research Institute [Online] http://www.sipri.se/cbw/research/sipri-bicc-cw-map.html
Russia's
chemical weapons program has reportedly developed a new class of advanced
binary chemical weapons, referred to as the Novichok series. A-232 is both a
unitary agent and a Novichok precursor.
Dr. Vil S. Mirzayanov, "Dismantling the Soviet/Russian Chemical Weapons
Complex: An Insider's View," Chemical Weapons Disarmament in Russia:
Problems and Prospects (Washington, DC: The Henry L. Stimson Center, 1995)
pp. 24-25.
Clifford Krauss, "U.S. Urges Russia To End Production of Nerve Gas," The
New York Times, February 6, 1997.
Frank Von Hippel, "Russian whistleblower faces jail," The Bulletin
of Atomic Scientists, 49 (March 1993) [Online] http://www.bullatomsci.org/issues/1993/m93/m93vonhippel.html.
55 According to the DOD,
some work "outside the scope of legitimate biological defense activity may
be occurring" in Russia.
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/index.html.
"[S]ome
facilities, in addition to being engaged in legitimate activity, may be
maintaining the capability to produce biological warfare agents."
ACDA, Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control Agreements: 1997 Annual
Report to Congress [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/annual/comp97.htm.
56 "According to its declaration, Russia
maintained an offensive research and development program until March 1992 that
worked with anthrax, tularemia, brucellosis, plague, Venezuelan equine
encephalitis, typhus, and Q-fever. With respect to toxins, Russia claimed that
the only natural toxin studied in its program was botulinum toxin."
Richard Boucher, U.S. Department of State, "Joint US/UK/Russian Statement
on Biological Weapons," Press Release, Office of Public Affairs
(Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, September 14, 1992), cited in Graham
S. Pearson, "The Threat of Deliberate Disease in the 21st Century," Biological
Weapons Proliferation: Reasons for Concern, Courses of Action (Washington,
DC: The Henry L. Stimson Center, January 1998), p. 29.
Russian
defector Kanatjan Alibekov (Kenneth Alibek), a former deputy director of the
Soviet/Russian biological warfare development program, lists the following
agents as either weaponized or researched by the Soviet/Russian program:
smallpox, plague, anthrax, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, glanders,
brucellosis, Marburg virus, Ebola virus, Argentinian hemorrhagic fever, Machupo
virus, yellow fever, Lassa fever, Japanese encephalitis, Russian spring-summer
encephalitis, tularemia, typhus, Q-fever, psittacosis, ornithosis, rinderpest
virus, African swine fever virus, wheat stem rust, and rice blast.
Dr. Kenneth Alibek, statement before the Joint Economic Committee, U.S.
Congress, Joint Economic Committee, Terrorism and Intelligence Operations:
Hearing before the Joint Economic Committee, 105th Congress,
Second Session, May 20, 1998, [Online]http://www.house.gov/jec/hearings/intell/alibek.htm.
57 A government spokesman
stated that South Africa's chemical weapons program has been "terminated,
and that the material for offensive purposes in government storage has been
destroyed." The program was shut down in 1993 and its products dumped at
sea.
Buchizya Mseteka, "S. Africa Says it Terminated Chemical Weapons Scheme,"
Reuters, June 15, 1998.
Lynne
Duke, "Doubts Arise on Junking of Chemical Arms; S. African Panel Told
Some Drugs, Formulas May Have Been Secretly Held Back," Washington Post,
July 9, 1998, A24.
58 David Beresford, "Mandela on apartheid's
poison list," The Age, 6/11/98, [Online] http://www.theage.com.au/daily/980611/news/news18.html.
Chris
Opperman, "Prosecutors Ecstatic as Basson's Buddy Talks," Weekly
Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), June 27, 1997
"SADF 'made Ecstasy for riot control,'" Business Day, June 10,
1998
Lynne Duke, "Doubts Arise on Junking of Chemical Arms; S. African Panel
Told Some Drugs, Formulas May Have Been Secretly Held Back," Washington
Post, July 9, 1998, A24.
"Apartheid-Era Scientist: Mandela was Target for Poisoning," Edmonton
Journal Extra, June 10, 1998.
David Beresford, "Apartheid's Lab Rats," Weekly Mail and Guardian
(Johannesburg), June 12, 1998.
Andrew Maykuth, "Mandela's Government Becomes Ally of Ex-Foe," Philadelphia
Inquirer, June 20, 1998.
**Paraquat is a widely used herbicide employed to kill broad leafed plants and
grasses. Paraquat is extremely toxic to humans when inhaled or ingested.
Paraoxon is an organophosphate pesticide toxic to humans.
59 A government spokesman stated that South
Africa's biological weapons program has been "terminated, and that the
material for offensive purposes in government storage has been destroyed."
The program was shut down in 1993 and its products dumped at sea.
Buchizya Mseteka, "S. Africa Says it Terminated Chemical Weapons
Scheme," Reuters, 6/15/98.
60 In his testimony before
the Reconciliation and Truth Commission, Dr. Schalk van Rensburg indicated that
South Africa's biological weapons program used cholera, anthrax, botulinum
toxin, and salmonella in its activities.
Beresford, "Mandela on apartheid's poison list," [Online] http://www.theage.com.au/daily/980611/news/news18.html.
Maykuth,
"Mandela's Government Becomes Ally of Ex-Foe."
61 Rear Admiral Thomas
Brooks identified South Korea as a "probable" chemical weapons
possessor in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
Citing
U.S. government sources, a 1997 article in the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists
counts South Korea among those states suspected of having chemical weapons.
E.J. Hogendoorn, "A Chemical Weapons Atlas," p. 38.
The Economist reports that South Korea is among those countries that,
under the Chemical Weapons Convention, have declared possessing chemical
weapons.
"Chemical Weapons. Just Checking," The Economist, p. 42.
See footnote # 13. Shanker, "West underwrites Third World's chemical
arms"; McCain, "Proliferation in the 1990s: implications for U.S.
Policy and force planning;" in Burck and Flowerree, International
Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation, pp. 168-171.
also
cited in Burck and Flowerree chart:
62 There is considerable uncertainty as to Sudan's
chemical weapons status. For a well documented discussion of the debate please
refer to the CNS Fact Sheet on Sudan, "Weapons of Mass Destruction
Capabilities and Programs" [Online] http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/sudan.htm.
63 Rear Admiral Thomas
Brooks identified Syria as a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in
testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
The
DOD reports that Syria "[p]roduces and is capable of using chemical
agents" and that it is currently seeking an "independent chemical
warfare capability."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/index.html.
"Syria already has a stockpile of the nerve agent sarin and may be trying
to develop more potent nerve agents."
CIA, Report of Proliferation-Related Acquisition in 1997 [Online] http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/acq1997.html#Syria.
Syria has production facilities for nerve gas and possibly other chemical
agents.
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html.
See also
M. Zuhair Diab, "Syria's Chemical and Biological Weapons: Assessing
Capabilities and Motivations," The Nonproliferation Review, 5 (Fall
1997), pp. 104-111.
For further information on Syria's weapons of mass destruction programs and
capabilities, see the CNS country profile on the "Weapons of Mass
Destruction in the Middle East" web page at http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/syria.htm.
64 CDISS reports that
Syria's chemical arsenal contians mustard gas, sarin, and VX.
"Devil's Brews Briefing: Syria," Centre for Defence and International
Security Studies, Lancaster University, 1996.
"Syria
has reportedly developed the capability to produce both mustard gas and nerve
agents."
Institute for National Strategic Studies, Strategic Assessment 1997,
Flashpoints and Force Structure [Online] http://www.ndu.edu/ndu/inss/sa97/sa97ch11.html.
The CIA reports that Syria has a stockpile of sarin.
CIA, Report of Proliferation-Related Acquisition in 1997 [Online] http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/acq1997.html#Syria.
65 Testifying before
Congress in 1991, Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks indicated that Syria had
"developed an offensive BW capability."
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
Syria
"[p]ossesses adequate biotechnical infrastructure to support biological
warfare program" and might be "conducting research related to
biological warfare."
Office of the Secretary of Defense, Proliferation: Threat and Response,
[Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/index.html.
In its annual report to Congress, ACDA states that "it is highly probable
that Syria is developing an offensive biological warfare capability."
ACDA, Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control Agreements: 1997 Annual
Report to Congress [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/annual/comp97.htm.
66 Syria has a "[p]robable production
capability for anthrax and botulinum toxin, and possibly other agents."
Cordesman, "Creeping Proliferation Could Mean a Paradigm Shift in the Cost
of War and Terrorism," [Online] http://www.csis.org/mideast/stable/3h.html
67 Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Taiwan as
a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
68 According to a Russian
intelligence report, "Taiwan does not have biological weapons...[however],
it has shown signs of conducting biological research of an applied military
nature."
Russian Federation Foreign Intelligence Service, "A New Challenge After
the Cold War: Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction," p. 104.
ACDA
reports that Taiwan has been upgrading its biotechnology capabilities, but
states that the "evidence indicating a BW program is not sufficient to
determine if Taiwan is engaged in activities prohibited by the BWC."
ACDA, Adherence to and Compliance with Arms Control Agreements: 1997 Annual
Report to Congress [Online] http://www.acda.gov/reports/annual/comp97.htm.
69 The United Kingdom
renounced its chemical weapons option in 1957 and subsequently destroyed its CW
capabilities.
Edward M. Spiers, Chemical and Biological Weapons: A Study of Proliferation
(New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994) pp. 11, 162.
"Britain
decided against building her own nerve-gas factory in the mid-1950s and, having
taken that decision, discarded her residual World War II chemical weapons and
closed down her chemical weapons research and development program."
Julian Perry Robinson, "Appendix C: United States and NATO Chemical
Weapons," in Matthew Meselson, ed. Chemical Weapons and Chemical Arms
Control (New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1978) p.
113.
70 The United Kingdom's World War II stockpile of
chemical weapons included phosgene, mustard gas, and lewisite.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume II: CB Weapons
Today, p. 127.
71 The Office of Technology
Assessment includes the United Kingdom in a list of countries that have
admitted to having had "offensive [biological] weapon munition supplies or
development programs in the past."
U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Proliferation of Weapons of
Mass Destruction, p. 63.
The
United Kingdom's biological weapons program began in 1940 with the
establishment of a small research unit within the U.K.'s chemical weapons
program. In 1942, the British began working in collaboration with both Canada
and the United States in biological weapons research.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of
CB Weapons, p. 117-118.
72 The British biological weapons program involved
research on anthrax.
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of
CB Weapons, p. 118.
73 The United States
stopped production of unitary chemical munitions in 1969.
"Chemical and Biological Warfare," The Military Balance 1988-1989
(London: IISS, 1988), p. 244.
In
November 1985, Congress passed legislation calling for the destruction of 90
percent of the total U.S. stockpile of unitary chemical agents. On May 13,
1991, the Bush administration announced that U.S. stockpiles of both binary and
unitary weapons would be detroyed when the CWC entered into force.
Amy E. Smithson, The U.S. Chemical Weapons Destruction Program: Views,
Analysis, and Recommendations (Washington, DC: The Henry L. Stimson Center,
1994), pp. 96, 99.
The U.S. currently operates two chemical weapons destruction facilities, one on
Johnston Island in the Pacific and one in Tooele, Utah. As of October 11, 1998,
these two facilities had destroyed 12.2 percent of the total U.S. stockpile of
chemical weapons.
"The Chemical Weapons Countdown," The Henry L. Stimson Center
[Online] http://www.stimson.org/cwc/count.htm.
74 U.S. Army Soldier and
Biological Chemical Command [Online] http://www.cbdcom.apgea.army.mil/FactSheets/index.html
(site accessed September 1, 1998).
-The Department of Defense is in the proocess of reviewing defense information
made available on the web. As such, this site may not be accessible at this
time.
Included
in the U.S. chemical weapons stockpile are 680.19 tons of binary weapons
components.
"U.S. Chemical Weapons Stockpile Information Declassified," Office of
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, January
22, 1996) [Online] http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Jan1996/b012496_bt024-96.html.
75 "In 1969, President Nixon disestablished
offensive studies including the destruction of all stockpiles of agents and
munitions." Destruction of biological weapon agent stocks and munitions
was accomplished between May 1971 and May 1972. The study of biological weapons
continued after 1969, but for defensive purposes only.
USAMRIID, "A History of Biological Warfare," [Online]
http://140.139.42.105/content/BioWarCourse/HISTORY/HISTORY.html (accessed
October 1998).
76 Anthrax, brucellosis,
Eastern and Western equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis,
Argentinian hemorrhagic fever, Korean hemorrhagic fever, Bolivian hemorrhagic
fever, Lassa fever, tularemia, and Q-fever are among the biological agents
researched by the U.S. program for offensive and/or defensive purposes. All
research since 1969 has been for defensive purposes.
USAMRIID, "A History of Biological Warfare," [Online]
http://140.139.42.105/content/BioWarCourse/HISTORY/HISTORY.html (accessed
October 1998).
According
to SIPRI, the U.S. biological program studied the following agents: anthrax,
glanders, brucellosis, melioidosis, tularemia, plague, yellow fever,
psittacosis, typhus, dengue fever, Rift Valley fever, Chikungunya disease
virus, ricin, rice blast, rice brown spot disease, late blight of potato, stem
rust of cereal, rinderpest virus, Newcastle disease virus, fowl plague virus
SIPRI, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Volume I: The Rise of
CB Weapons, p. 122-123.
See also
John Bryden, Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937-1947 (Toronto:
McClelland & Stewart Inc., 1989).
77 Rear Admiral Thomas Brooks identified Vietnam as
a "probable" chemical weapons possessor in testimony before Congress.
Brooks, statement before the Subcommittee on Seapower, Strategic and Critical
Materials, p. 107.
78 The Pentagon has
reported the existence of chemical weapons in the FRY. (Judith Miller,
"U.S. Officials Suspect Deadly Chemical Weapons in Yugoslav Army
Arsenal" New York Times, April 16, 1999.)
The
Federation of American Scientists has confirmed the existence of three
operating chemical weapons facilities in Serbia, namely Prva Iskra, in Baric,
Serbia; Miloje Blagojevic in Lucani, Serbia; and Milojie Zakic and Merima in
Krusevic, Serbia. (FAS news release, "Chemical Agents in the Former
Yugoslavia," Nuclear Forces Guide web page, [Online]http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/serbia/cw/index.html,
April 8, 1999.)
Jonathan
Tucker, Director of the Chemical and Biological Weapons Nonproliferation
Project, Center for Nonproliferation Studies at the Monterey Institute of
International Studies also reported the existence of a facility that was moved
from Mostar, Bosnia to Lucani, Serbia by Yugoslav forces in 1992 (Miller, New
York Times).
79 Pentagon officials believe the FRY possesses
sarin, mustard gas, BZ, and CS. (Judith Miller, "U.S. Officials Suspect
Deadly Chemical Weapons in Yugoslav Army Arsenal" New York Times,
April 16, 1999.)
Human
Rights Watch reports FRY possession of sarin, sulfur mustard, BZ, CS, CN,
LSD-25, chloropicrin, cyanogen chloride, soman, tabun, and VX. ("Chemical
Warfare in Bosnia?" Human Rights Watch Report, Vol. 10, No. 9 (D),
November 1998.)
The
Federation of American Scientists also reports the existence of nitrogen
mustard, lewsite, and phosgene. (FAS news release, "Chemical Agents in the
Former Yugoslavia," Nuclear Forces Guide web page, [Online]http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/serbia/cw/index.html,
April 8, 1999.)
FRY
possession of siperit (in addition to sarin, soman, tabun, and VX) is reported
in Nova Bosna. (Azra Terzic, "Chemical Weapons in the Service of
Genocide," Nova Bosna, December 30, 1995.)
80 Pentagon officials report that they have no
evidence of biological weapons production in the FRY. (Judith Miller,
"U.S. Officials Suspect Deadly CHemical Weapons in Yugoslav Army
Arsenal" New York Times, April 16, 1999.)
However,
a former Yugoslav army officer claimed in a letter to the UN Secretary General,
the UNSC, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, NATO, SFOR, and the governments of
ten nations that the FRY is in fact producing biological weapons, although he
did not indicate which agents were being produced. ("Bosnian TV Probes
Chemical Weapons Production in FRY," Televizija Bosne I Hercegovine
(Sarajevo), February 6, 1999, FBIS, FTS19990207000460.)
Follow
the links in this table to information about and chemical data for these
compounds. There is also a link to information on binary
chemical warfare agents.
Agent Identification
and Common Name(s) |
Chemical Abstracts
Service (CAS) Name |
Chemical Structure |
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Methylphosphonothioic
acid, S-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl] O-2-methylpropyl ester |
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Methylphosphonothioic
acid, S-[2-[bis(1-methylethyl)amino]ethyl] O-ethyl ester |
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BINARY
CHEMICAL WEAPONS
Binary
chemical weapons mix two, separate, relatively non-toxic chemicals in flight to
create a toxic chemical agent.
GB BINARY
Methylphosphonyl
difluoride (DF) is initially located in one canister, while a mixture (OPA) of
isopropyl alcohol and isopropyl amine is located in a separate canister. When
the weapon is fired (or otherwise delivered), a disk between the canisters
ruptures, and the two components react in flight to produce GB.
GD BINARY
Methylphosphonyl
difluoride (DF) is initially located in one canister, while a mixture of
pinacolyl alcohol and an amine is located in a separate canister. When the
weapon is fired (or otherwise delivered), a disk between the canisters
ruptures, and the two components react in flight to produce GD.
VX BINARY
O-Ethyl
O-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonite (QL) is initially located in one
canister, while elemental sulfur is located in a separate canister. When the
weapon is fired (or otherwise delivered), a disk between the canisters
ruptures, and the two components react in flight to produce VX.