Who came first? Some say it was a monkey and some say it was a man named Adam. Which faith came first? It is typical to think of the Torah as solely the “Books of Moses” or Pentateuch and so many will think it is Judaism. However, what those of Judaic faith often consider Torah contains a much larger body of material brought through much longer and developed history. Muslims might say Islam came first since the others strayed from what was the original truth. Christianity might mention that Abraham saw the day of Christ and rejoiced as a Christian and so it came first. Which religious group came first in declaring a special religious identity? That is hard to answer as well for so many groups develop out of the others. I would tend to say that is the Jews. However, what does it really mean to be a Jew? Is it a sort of physical descent, or continuation of a spiritual promise? Muslims might say Ishmael their father was older than than Isaac whom fathered the Jews. I think all would agree that truth came first.

So how to we respond to the situation in the Middle East? I don’t know, it seems like there are a lot of very simple question we don’t even know the answer to. The numbers of issues and dimensions concerning that are as countless as the grains of sand on the seashore. So much is inter-related and we only get half the picture. Pretty much each group has at sometime hated and mistreated the people of each other group. Pretty much each action has had a surrounding context which is viewed only through partial vision or through the context of the current society. Pretty much each context has had angles and dimensions which are missed and ignored especially when the issue is of a religious nature. And yet, so many of our responses are conditioned by our own limited human sensibilities.

Who are Jews and who are Muslims? Working as a T.A. in a local small town Jr. High I heard that a social studies teacher told the students that Arabian Muslims were terrorists whom treated their women bad. Most people in America today think of Jews as the good people in the Old Testament whom suffered under the evil Hitler. I’m a Christian, whom believes salvation is only through Christ. I also think that the Jews have suffered at the hands of much wickedness. I tend not to like the Islamic faith. Yet, how are these labels going to get anywhere? Some people say that all humans are human. Next, we can move to see what these humans believe.

Most Christians wish to promote positive relations between Christians and Jews and so many promote the message that Jesus was a Jew. All of Jesus’s disciples were also Jews. But what does a Christian consider a Jew to be? Jews believe in Torah and we accept a common heritage. Generally speaking they believe in the same Hebrew Scriptures that Christians believe in, yet our traditions took different paths. Christians are often confused. Part of the common confusion is due to the fact that Torah can mean different things in different contexts. Christians often think the Torah refers to just the Old Testament. However, Torah can refer to the Five Books of Moses, the Tanakh, or to the whole body of “Jewish” law and teachings.

The Books of Moses, which are also referred to as Torah or Pentateuch, includes the books of Genesis through Deuteronomy. The Tanakh is an abbreviation for Torah (Pentateuch), Nevi'im (the Prophets), and Kethuvim (the writings). The Tanakh contains the larger Hebrew Bible encompassed in these sections. Most, but not all, Jewish sects include a larger body of Jewish teaching as Torah. It includes the Talmud, Mishnah, and Midrashim and is commonly called “Oral Torah.”

In trying to make sure I didn’t make too many sweeping generalization in anything further, I asked a Jew what they universally agreed upon. He responded, “In our day and age, Jews don’t universally agree to anything.” Another Jews once responded, “What is hateful to thee, do not unto thy fellow man; this is the whole Law; the rest is mere commentary.” The fact of the matter is there is much diversity within each of the religious traditions. There are Orthodox Jews, Reform Jews, Conservative Jews, Karaites, Protestants, Catholics, Suni Muslims, and Shi’ite Muslims to name a few. Each group is different and each individual within each group is different.

PART ONE

Diverging beliefs within the Faith of Israel can be seen to have begun most clearly during the end of Solomon’s reign in the 10th century BC. or within the divided kingdom which followed Solomon’s death. The tabernacle, or more specifically Mishkan, had been a symbol for and means by which to achieve unity and community for the Children of the Israel during and after the days of Moses. In previous work I found the potential for the Tabernacle and the instructions for its construction to be a pattern for other books of the Pentateuch, specifically Genesis, bringing about a certain textual unity as well. With the law handed to Moses, so too came the instructions for the tabernacle.

The Tabernacle had been believed to be the only suitable place for the sacrifice and other rituals of Israel to be performed. King David had brought the innermost dimension of the tabernacle, the Ark, to Jerusalem. However, the rest of the tabernacle remained elsewhere. In 2nd Chronicles 1:3-6, the Ark is in David’s tent in Jerusalem, but the people go to sacrifice at the Tabernacle in Gibeon. Later, when Solomon dedicated the first temple, he brought both the ark and the tent of meeting into it. The tabernacle (mishkan) is said to have existed in the temple (2Chron29:5-7). This temple was in what became the Southern Kingdom of Judah.

When the Kingdom divided, the Israelites in the Northern Kingdom of Israel are said to have set up alternative shrines. The book of Kings portrays a very negative image of these Northern shrines and religious practices. Thus, there was a divergence in the religious beliefs and political support of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms. The Northern kings were reprimanded for their rejection of the Jerusalem Shrine.

JEW

In today’s world, the meaning of the word Jew and Judaist have different connotations and what constitutes being Jewish is often a matter of debate. However, it is here where the word Jew is first derived. “The word Jew is derived from the term ‘Judahite’ meaning a member of the tribe of Judah or a citizen of the kingdom of Judah. ” In derivation of the term, the members of the Northern Kingdom of Israel would not be considered Jews.

Sharing a similar heritage, Christians claim Christ came from the line of Judah. However, many Jews will disagree. When looking to start a conversation with a Jewish man I was asked if I were Christian. When I admitted that I was, the man went to demonstrate why Christ was not the Jewish Messiah. His first argument was that the Messiah would be a descended of Judah. The Christian Messiah had no father and thus according to this man could not have fulfilled the prophesy.

While I question the “orthodoxy” of my attempt to respond, it appeared to me that descent is nowhere explicitly mentioned as being only through the means of sexual reproduction. Rather this interpretation of descent would be a normative natural experience and outward expression. I suggested the possibility that descent might relate to something more internal than what we typically see. This perhaps bears similarity to or was in someway relatable to the “presence,” or that attached to or existing in the “presence,” within the innermost chambers of the tabernacle.

The point, however, is that while many Jews consider Jesus along with his disciples Jewish, it is at times more difficult for them to consider the Christian Jesus Jewish in relation to heritage nor the Christian faith Judaic. Likewise, Christians often question the Jewish state of being and its relation to the covenant when not entering the tabernacle present in Christ. This man and I held a positive conversation once we established the common bond that the Hebrew Scriptures could not be contradicted or that the New Testament could not stand in opposition to the “Old”.

Samaritans

At the time of the divided kingdom, the Samaritans (in derivation) were not Jewish. While holding a faith in the God of Israel, they stood in conflict with the Jews of Judea. In their history, Samaria was conquered along with the Northern Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians in 724. The Southern Kingdom of Judah lasted a little longer but was eventually conquered as well as the Jews were sent into exile by the Babylonians in 587. The Jewish temple was destroyed and it is thought that the tabernacle disappeared with it.

After Persia conquered Babylonia in 539, King Cyrus allowed the exiles from the Northern territory to return to their homelands and while there was no tabernacle mentioned, they were allowed to rebuild the outer temple. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah are central in understanding the Jews returning from exile as well as Jewish mentalities of upcoming generations. The relationship between the Jews and Samaritans heightens this understanding.

The Samaritans were not allowed to aid in the reconstruction of the temple and they worked against the Jewish building efforts on Mount Zion. They developed their own religious traditions in Worship of the God of Israel and built their own temple on Mount Gerazim. They also came to develop their own version of the Pentateuch. The Samaritans and the Samaritan Pentateuch still remain in existence as a minority and fragmentation. Both are considered distinct from the standard Jewish or Christian Pentateuch and beliefs.

At the time of Christ the Jews still did not associate with the Samaritans (John 4:8-10). Christ acknowledged the Jewish faith, "You Samaritans worship what you do not know; we worship what we do know, for salvation is from the Jews”(John 4:22). Yet he broke custom and associated with the Samaritans. Jesus continued, "Yet a time is coming and has now come when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and truth, for they are the kind of worshipers the Father seeks” (John 4:23). Somewhat elevating or transcending the hereditary pattern the story concludes, "Many of the Samaritans from that town believed in him because of the woman's testimony, "He told me everything I ever did” (John 4:39). This definitely challenged many Judaic understandings of the time.

THE JEWS

In their return from exile, the Jews of the Southern Kingdom were not without fault, difficulties, nor developing division within themselves. The book of Ezra tells of how many had fallen from the faith and taken foreign wives. To cure the problem, Nehemiah, who was appointed governor of Judea in 445BC, worked with Ezra to remove the impure practices that had occurred. The following years would involve conflicts within attempts to maintain this purity.

According to tradition, it was at this time that Esdras originated the Great Assembly or Great Synagogue. Tradition considers the assembly to have included the last of the prophets and the first of the scribes. According to a Rabbinic source, members of the Great Assembly “sealed the Bible - that is the Written law, and transmitted the Oral Law. ” The development of the oral law stands as one of the first differences between Rabbinical and Christian understandings as well as differences between “Judaists” themselves both in days shortly following and in much later times.

The Oral Tradition believes that “the last surviving member of the Great Assembly was Shimon the righteous. ” He is also often considered the first of the great Sages (sometimes called the Tannaim). Simeon the Just was a link to the expanding oral tradition. Rabbinic tradition speaks of him within a section of the Mishnah entitled “Pirkei Avos” (“Chapters of our Fathers”) . 1:1. Moshe received Torah from Sinai, and transmitted it to Joshua, Joshua to the Elders, the Elders to the Prophets, and the Prophets transmitted it to the Men of the Great Assembly. They said three things: Be deliberate in judgment; raise up many disciples; and make a fence for the Torah 1:2. Simon the Just was of the remnants of the Great Assembly. He used to say: On three things the world stands: on the Torah, on the (Temple) Service, and on Deeds of Loving-Kindness.

Simeon stood at a time of shifting power in Judea. In 333BC Persia was defeated by King Alexander of Macedonia and brought Judah into the Macedonian Empire initially ruled by King Ptolemy. “Talmud relates that when Alexander the Great and his conquering legions advanced upon Jerusalem, they were met by a delegation of elders, led by the High Priest Shimon Ha Tzaddik (Simon the Righteous). ” The relationship presented was very positive between the Jews and Alexander himself. “He canceled the Jewish taxes during Sabbatical years, and even offered animals to be sacrificed on his behalf in the Temple. ”

THE SANHEDRIN

It is within this period that the institution of the Sanhedrin developed. The exact date or process by which it emerged is a matter of debate as is the homage attributed to it or its changing function. This difference is true both between Christian and Judaic understandings as well as amongst scholarship of a less religious orientation . Amidst Judaic tradition, the Sanhedrin is regarded very positively as a spiritual guide of Jewish life and the transmitter of the Oral Law. Amongst today’s general Christian population it is often reminiscent of a court that condemned Christ and executed many of his disciples.

Traditional Rabbinic interpretation would feel that “the Sanhedrin was the successor to the Great Assembly ” and that it functioned as the legislative body of the Jewish people. ” Finding its roots in Moses (Num 11, 16), many note its post-exilic roots in Ezra. Catholic sources disagree stating “Nor should the origin of the Sanhedrin be sought in the Great Synagogue, of which tradition attributed the foundation to Esdras. ” They assert that Great Synagogue was a meeting of Ezra and his scholars while the Sanhedrin was a Greek institution (political and military, as well as priestly and leaders of business, royalty and "leading citizens")) later adopted by the Jews of Jerusalem.

In Jewish tradition, the head of the Sanhedrin would be “the Nasi and second to him was the Av Bet Din. ” The “Nasi “has been translated Prince. Traditionally, the Nasi was the High Priest. It “was a position that combined religious and secular leadership. ” With the Sanhedrin acting as the “Supreme Court,” the Av Bet Din was in tradition analogous to the “Chief Justice.” The Nasi and Av Bet Din are also called Zugots. According to Mishnah and Josephus, there were 71 members in the Sanhedrin which included the “ancients,” the chief priests, and the legal experts or scribes. According to Catholic sources, Greek-speaking Jews often referred to the Sanhedrin as the gerousia, “the assembly of the ancients” while Hebrew and Talmud material generally refers to it as Beth-Din, “House of Judgment. ”

Around the same time that the Sanhedrin received undisputable and distinguished mention in the writings of Josephus, the Greeks were influencing other elements of Judaic structural expression. In approximately 250BC the Pentateuch is believed to have been translated into Greek. Legend has it that this was by a group of 70 Jewish scholars. The rest of the Septuagint is thought to have been translated during the next 200 years . According to Jewish sources “Jews who were advocating a Hellenization of Jewish culture applauded the translation; the Rabbis were less sanguine. ” The integrity of such a translation has been a matter of contention amongst Jews as well as Christians.

SELUCID

In 198 BC King Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire took over the territory of Judah. The authorities of this empire attempted to Hellenize Jerusalem, outlaw the Jewish faith, and eventually turn the temple a pagan shrine. Helenization ran deep within many Jewish aristocrats as well. “Jason as high priest (175-172 BCE)” even “established Jerusalem as a Greek city. ”

Outraged at the desecration, Mattathius led the Hasmonean family (the Maccabes) in a revolt against the Selucidians and the Hellenistic Jews who were in leagues with them. ” Mattathius died in 166 BC and leadership passed to his son Judah Maccabeus. Just two years later the Maccabes (or Hassidim) defeated Antiochus IV, recaptured Jerusalem, and rededicated the temple .

THE ANCIENT STATE OF ISRAEL – HASMODEAN PERIOD

The Maccobean victory marks the beginning of the Hasmonean period and is celebrated today in the Jewish Holiday of Chanukah. The tradition relates that after cleansing the temple there was only enough oil for the sacred lamp to stay lit for one day. Miraculously, it stood lit for 8 days. However, this story is not mentioned in Jewish scripture, nor is Chanukah typically as significant a holiday as it has become in America. Both the disproportional emphasis on Chanukah and the scriptural significance are due in large part to Judaism's relationship with Christianity. Chanukah takes place at a time of year comparable to that of Christmas and the book of Maccabees, while not included in Protestant scripture, is contained within the Catholic cannon.

While Chanukah is the celebrated event, the rededication of the temple a highlight, it took two additional decades of fighting before the Maccabees forced the Seleucids to retreat from Palestine 142 BC. The following years would experience an independent Jewish state. Within this state, the Hasmonians combined royal and priestly powers into the person of the king. Assumedly, this threw the Sanhedrin into the background, yet “the Sanhedrin, continued to be "the house of justice of the Hasmoneans. "

PHARASEES AND SADUCEES

Christians often group the Jews of this period together as one general group. Yet they were not all of one mind. Two of the opposing Jewish sects which appeared during the Hasmonean period were the Pharisees and the Sadducees. While the origin of these two sects cannot be definitively traced “the scant evidence available suggests that they coalesced as distinctive groups soon after the Maccabean revolt. ” Information on them comes from the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, the New Testament, rabbinical writings from the early 3rd century AD, and references in the Dead Sea Scrolls. From these writings it can be seen that the groups stood in strong conflict with each other, deviating in beliefs.

In dedication to Ezra’s ideals and in opposition to the Helenizing influences of the day, one group of Jews which arose called themselves the Chasidim or "pious ones." The Chasidim is believed to have become a distinct class during the Macabean wars and later given the to name Pharisees. The word Pharisees has been traditionally translated as "separated ones. ” The Pharisees became distinct from the Hasidim, whom had also been active against the Hellenizing forces in the Maccabean revolt. The Pharisees stood in strong conflict with the Sadducees and they opposed the Hasmonaen monarchs because the Pharisees felt that it was “wrong to combine kingship with the antique high priesthood. ”

The Pharisees sought to “reform society by bringing about a strict adherence to the Law, especially as it related to ritual purity. ” They worked not as ruling class, the priestly class, nor a class of professional scholars. “The Pharisees were part of a voluntary lay movement. ” Josephus speaks of them saying, “The Pharisees are considered to be the most expert interpreters of the Law and are held to be the leading sect. ” They were strong in synagogs where they focused on education in Torah. Rabbinic Judaism considers The Pharisees as their predecessors and states that this “was the time of the Rabbis of the Mishnah. In their academies they debated and clarified the Oral law. ”

The Sadducees were “a small group of heredity priests who controlled the worship in the temple .” They were generally wealthy members of the Jewish aristocracy and embraced Hellenism. They did not accept the “oral torah” but only the written. Within today’s Rabbinical Judaism, they are often regarded as heretics.

There were important differences between the beliefs of the Pharisees and Sadducees. While the Pharisees held to an oral tradition of Torah often considered to evolve into Rabbinic Judaism, “the Sadducees rejected the Oral Law and claimed to profess only the Written Law. ” The Pharisees believed that the choice of right or wrong rested in mans hands, but that fate held some part. The Sadducees did not believe in fate, nor that God could commit sin nor see it . While the Pharisees believed in an incorruptible soul, an afterlife of heaven or hell, and a bodily resurrection, the Sadducees denied the permanence of soul and denied any messianic hope. Also, while the Sadducees are often presented as powerful aristocrats with Helenizing tendencies and were mistrusted for their relationships with later ruling parties, Josephus presents the Pharisees as “taking no concession for luxury ” and ultimately dedicated to the study of Torah and temple purity, especially in the face of Hellenism.

ANCIENT MYSTERY

A third Jewish Group emerged during the Hasmonean period was called the Essenes by Josephus and is likely to have included those whom lived at Qumran and produced the Dead Sea scrolls. The Essenes were removed and obscure. The first Qumran community is believed to have been originated by “the teacher of Righteousness” whom had been in conflict with a “wicked priest” Probably standing in conflict with the Hasmonean leadership they arose during the second century BC. and began preparing for an eschatological war between good and evil.

The Essenes were ultimately a group in themselves, retreated from the rest of society. As presented by Josephus, they were dedicated to the keeping of Moses’s law and held distinguishing practices. They believed that the in an incorruptible soul entrapped within a corruptible body. They practiced celibacy, shared communal property, and lived with no money.

JOHN HYRCANUS

While little is heard from the Essenes, the tension between the Sadducees and Pharisees is seen to have exploded during the reign of John Hyrcanus (134-104BC). In a report by Josephus in “The Antiquities of the Jews,” John Hyrcanus was initially a supporter of the Pharisees, but due to a false accusation over his lineage and thus Jewish purity, he left the Pharisees and joined the Sadducees.

Later, a group of Pharisees pelted Hyrcanus’s son Alexandar with lemons after he had performed a ceremonial ritual incorrectly. Outraged, Alexander had 6,000 of the Pharisees killed. “This brought on a civil war which lasted six years and cost 50,000 Jewish lives. ” Josephus reports of Alexander’s cruel treatment of his prisoners of war, "to Jerusalem, and did one of the most barbarous acts in the world to them; for as he was feasting with his concubines, in the sight of all the city, he ordered about eight hundred of them to be crucified; and while they were living, he ordered the throats of their children and wives to be cut before their eyes. "

Alexandar lost popularity among the Pharisees and other Jews as he supported the influence of the Sadducees which continued to prevail until his death in 76 BC. However, when Alexander’s wife Salome came to power she began giving more favor to the Pharisees. It is interesting that Salome’s brother, Shimon ben Shatach was a leader of the Pharisees and is mentioned in the lineage of “Pirkei Avos.”

“1.3: Antignos of Sokho received (Torah) from Simon the Just. He used to say: Be not like the servants who serve the master for the sake of receiving a reward, but be like the servants who serve the master not for the sake of receiving a reward; and let the fear of Heaven be upon you. 1.4: Yose ben Yoezer of Tzeredah and Yose ben Yohanan of Jerusalem received (Torah) from them…. 1:6: Yehoshua ben Perahyah and Nitai the Arbelite received (Torah) from them…. 1:8. Yehudah ben Tabbai and Shimon ben Shatach received the tradition from them…1:9 Shimon ben Shatach says: Interrogate the witnesses extensively; yet be cautious with your words, lest they learn from them to lie.”

“During Salome's reign (76-67 B.C.), the Sadducees lost much of their authority. ” Yet, as the Pharisees gained in influence conflicts continued. Salome had appointed her son Hyrcanus II to succeed her, yet her other son Aristobulus took control. As the conflict continued, the Romans entered the scene in 65BC. Pompey came to Jerusalem to put an end to the civil war.

Hyrcanus II and his Pharisee supporters opened the gates for Romans help. The Sadducee supporters of Salome’s other son Aristobulus resisted. Their resistance was overcome. “12,000 Jews were massacred ” in the process. This marks the beginning of the Roman period. “Pirkei Avos” records the words of the next Pharisees involved in the traditional passage of the “Oral Torah.”

“1:10: "Shemaya and Avtalyon received the tradition from them (the scholars mentioned in mishna 8). Shemaya said, love work, despise high position, and do not become too close to the authorities. ”

THE ROMANS

After their brutal entry Pompey briefly limited the reaches of the Sanhedrin’s power. However, he eventually reinstated Hyrcanus II to the high priesthood, and re-established the reaches of the Jerusalem Sanhedrin’s strength. When power was re-established, one of the things the Sanhedrin did was to judge Herod of cruelty in government. This was not taken lightly by Herod whom was declared “King of the Jews ” by Rome in 40BC. After a battle Herod captured Jerusalem (37BC) and put to death members of the Sanhedrin whom had judged him.

Herod brought many changes to Judea when he arrived. While Herod was part Jewish and did aid in contribution to the temple, he was a tyrant whom destroyed anything which stood in contention with his power. “Those who opposed him were punished, and those who took his side were rewarded with favors and honors. ”

Herod separated the office of High Priest and King. With himself as king, he also appointed High Priests of his liking and turned the Jewish “Sanhedrin into a religious court only, taking away its power in secular matters. ” There is also some dispute among scholars over whom came to control the Temple sacrifices and rituals at this point. Taking away power from the Sadducees and aristocrats, it may have given more power to the Pharisees and the masses.

HILLEL

During the days of the Romans, Jewish movements and leaders would arise. One of the leaders to arise is a man whom would become one of the most celebrated Jews of the Mishnah. Hillel, or “Hillel the elder” was born in approximately 70 B.C. to a family in Babylonia . Later moving to Jerusalem he worked as a woodcutter before gaining his prominence around 30BC. Hillel is another of the Pharisees to be included in the “Pirkei Avos.”

"Hillel and Shammai received the transmission from them (the scholars mentioned in Mishna 10). Hillel said, be of the students of Aharon, loving peace and pursuing peace, loving people and bringing them closer to Torah. "

If one substituted the word Torah with God, Christ, or truth the words of Hillel would sound very familiar to something uttered within a Christian church service. While there are distinctions and differences, many of Hillel’s sayings are similar to the words of Christ. Among Hillel’s most famous words was the phrase: “What is hateful to the, do not unto thy fellow man; this is the whole Law; the rest is mere commentary. ” This bears a striking similarity to Christ’s message to “Do to others as you would have them do to you, for this sums up the law and the prophets” (Matthew 7:12). Hillel’s words are here stated negatively (a “do not” rather than a “do”) and in this hold some difference that could be reflective of different orientations. Never the less, the gentleness of character presented in Hillel is a remarkably bright for a man entering into the day and age of Herod.

Alongside Hillel in the “Pirkei Avos” was another man named Shammai. While the Mishnah tradition embraces both Hillel and Shammai, the two often disagreed and stood in strong contrast. While Hillel was known for his gentleness, Shammai is known for his strictness. Legend has it that a Gentile approached Shammai saying that he would convert to Judaism “if Shammai could teach him the whole Torah in the time that he could stand on one foot. ” Shammai drove him away with a stick. Hillel, however, told him the version of the “Golden rule” listed above and the Gentile boy converted.

Hillel and Shammai came to found two separate schools of Pharisee thought. “The Talmud records over 300 differences of opinion between Beit Hillel (the House of Hillel) and Beit Shammai (the House of Shammai). ” In Mishnah, it is usually Hillel’s view which prevails. Some Jews are disturbed that “Shammai has received the bad "rep" of being a short-tempered, person who "did not suffer fools" lightly. ” In response they argue “this is certainly not the case, since it is Shammai himself who teaches ‘Receive everyone with a smiling face.’ " However, within this there is support that the Pharisees spoken of negatively by Christ as “hypocrites” in Matthew 23:27 were more strongly revealed in the house of Shammai.

Hillel would bring a brighter image of the word “Pharisee” than is typically imbedded in the Christian conscious and Christ’s objections would be more sightfully manifested in the house of Shammai. The typical image of Pharisees striving for external purity at the exclusion of compassion for sinners or those outside of the Jewish nationality does not appear as characteristic of Hillel. The story of his encounter with the Gentile boy seems to say otherwise. The excesses of legalism without thought of inward spirit and grace may have characterized the religious fervor, but it did not seem to be existent in all individual personalities.

However, I would be skeptical to say that Jesus was not in contention with something more imbedded in the theological orientation of the Pharisees movement as a whole or that he wasn’t in opposition to religious understandings which have in some instances may have carried over to Rabbinic Judaism (matt 16:11). Pelagian tendencies seemed to be imbedded in the philosophy. The central dependence on the law even without the oral tradition seems at times leaning towards idolatrous or acting as a “lesser good” which while as a system may ultimately being opened or guided towards a positive place yet in itself is not fully recognized. The traditions “fence” could bring focus away from the central or “more important elements of the law.” The belief in a more governmental, or national vindication (etc) also seems problematic to a Christian understanding.

Attempts have been made to show that Jesus was not only a Jew, but argued as a typical Pharisee and that attention should be paid to the specifics of what Jesus was in opposition to rather than the Pharisee movement as a whole. There may be many segments which Christ would have agreed with as one of the Jewish voices. However, it appears that Christ did stand in opposition not only to specifics, but to the entire oral tradition. It is the authority given to it which remains most problematic. In Christian understanding Jesus was the incarnation of God. Thus when the authority granted to the tradition took authority over Him, that which they were attributing as being of divine origin placed them in opposition to God (Mark 7:8).

The Pharisees position in relation to Christ death has definitely been a major issue of conflict between Jews and Christians. The Pharisee religious authority was threatened by Christ and according to Rabbinical tradition, Hillel became the "Nasi,” of the Sanhedrin and Shammai became the “Av Beit Din” (chief justice). Hillel is said to have received this position around 30BC which would have been during the days of Herod. In Talmud tradition the position of Nasi would continue to be held by Hillel’s son Simon, and then his grandson Gamaliel (Talm., Bab. Shabbath, 15).Thus, some of the most beloved members of Rabinnic tradition would have held very strong authority during the times of Christ’s death. This would be an enormous Judeo-Christian conflict.

However, this is a confusing issue, for under Herod the Nasi was no longer a royal office. Hillel was also not of the regal Sadducee families thought to hold the office of high priest during the Roman days, but was a Pharisee whom while coming from a wealthy family in Babylonia gained his prestige from impoverished beginnings in Judea. Herod is also said to have broken the tradition of a person holding a life term as high-priest as he appointed those of his liking. Furthermore, the Gospels list Caiaphas as the high-priest during the arrest and crucifixion of Christ. The Pharisee religious authority was still under threat by Christ, but function of the Sanhedrin(s) is confusing during this period.

CHRIST

Context is often important in understanding Christ’s relationship to Judaism and part of this context was Roman involvement. Herod had stood in opposition to anything which stood as a threat to his power. Towards the very end of Herod’s life he perceived a new threat within Judaism. The Gospels record that Herod “called together all the people’s chief priests and teachers of the law and asked them where Christ was to be born” before issuing his edict to kill all of the boys born in Bethlehem. This was but one of the messianic movements which threatened the Romans.

Christ’s childhood existed within an atmosphere of Jewish discontent and messianic movements. While Josephus seemed to presents the development of Christianity positively, these other movements were not always perceived as thus by Josephus. Judas the Galilean, also presented in the book of Acts was one of these groups which Josephus saw as corrupt. “Josephus seeks to make evident that Judas' spirit, interpretation, and example influenced all subsequent revolutionaries. ” Judas appears to have stood in opposition to the Roman census and subsequent taxation and implications that held for Jewish liberty. Those he was said to influence would include the later Daggermen and Zealots.

Herod, as previously mentioned had taken the regal office as “king of the Jews” and the Sanhedrin stood under his control. Josephus reports that Pilot (26-36) later sent images of Caesar to Jerusalem. As Herod had appointed High Priests of his liking, The Talmud records that by the time of Christ, “the high priest bought the office from the government and the position was changed every year. ” It follows that this “resulted in a group of wealthy Sadducean priestly families (primarily the Boethus, Anan, and Phiabi families) being appointed to the office on a regular basis.”

“Pontius Pilot was particularly insensitive to the Jews ” and his dominion remained a threat. The Jewish leaders both Sadducee and Pharisee sought to maintain their leadership, control, and ultimate existence. As the Gospel’s present it, a Sanhedrin meeting composed of both Sadducees and Pharisees saw Christ’s increasing power taking away the support of the masses that they needed in the face of Roman threat (John11:47-48). The beginning plot to take his life was begun with this background. The deciding factor came from a prophecy revealed to the high-pries Caiaphas. Caiaphas was the high priest and his prophesy was that Jesus would die for the Jewish nation and the rest of the scattered children of God and make them one (John11:52). However, that is not to say they understood the revelation.

It is unlikely that all of the Pharisees wished for Christ’s death. Some Pharisees warned Jesus that his life was in danger from the Herodians (Luke 13:31). Some ate with him calling him “teacher” (Luke 736:, 14:1). Some members of the Pharisee ruling council believed in Christ’s mission (John3) and questioned the legal right of other Pharisees whom condemned him (Luke 7:45-53). While Paul persecuted Christians as Pharisee studying under Gamaliel (acts 22), at the Sanhedrin he was supported by the Pharisees (against the Sadducees) when it was heard that he promoted the belief of resurrection (acts 23). Perhaps what is most intriguing is that Hillel’s grandson Gamaliel is mentioned in the New Testament. The apostles were arrested by the Sadducees and stood before the Sanhedrin and are ordered not to preach of Jesus. The apostles give a witness and speak of the Holy Spirit “whom God has given to those who obey him.” While the other members became angry, Gamaiel gave the opinion that it may have been from God and persuades the Sanhedrin to release the apostles (acts 5).

However most of the Pharisee leaders presented were in strong objection to Jesus and considered him a blasphemer (19:7). Many probably saw Jesus as the cause for the unhappy situation in Judea. Caiaphas asserted that it was “better for you that one man die for the people than the whole nation perish” (John 11:50). In appealing to the crowd whom had the choice to release either Christ or Barabas, the officials of the Sanhedrin might well have touched upon this as well as the sentiment that the Zealot Barabas better matched their revolutionary or messianic expectations.

Throughout the paradox, there really is no escaping the fact that Jews killed Christ and this has no-doubt brought hostility. Within the centuries which followed the crucifixion, charges that the Jews murdered Christ have continued to escalate to being a race of murderers as though they were beyond the norm in their wickedness. Christ was crucified on the Passover. Reminiscent of the Passover in Egypt, in Christian understandings, this goes back even further. Abraham answered, “God himself will provide the lamb for the burnt offering, my son” (Gen 22:8). Caiaphas was the high priest and his prophesy was that Jesus would die for the Jewish nation and the rest of the scattered children of God and make them one (John11:52).

Following Christ’s death unrest continued. According to the Gospels, Christ had predicted revolution in Judea. Especially in the 60s, nationalist groups and Zealots rose in opposition to the Romans. It has been said that “the Sanhedrin that first organized the struggle against Rome; but soon the Zealots, seizing the power in Jerusalem, put the famous assembly out of the way. ” Barabas, is often thought to have been a Sicarri or Daggerman, a group known to arise in the 60s. They are spoken of negatively by Josephus for committing murders “in broad daylight. ” The Zealots also arose and were presented by Josephus as “madmen ”

In 66 AD, the Zealots took control of Jerusalem but by 70AD the Romans defeated them. In the process the Jews met a mighty blow as the temple was destroyed. In the South, the Zealots held their ground at the fortress of Masada. Rather than be conquered by the Romans they were lead by Eleazar into mass suicide in 73.

The loss of the temple was a sorrowful event for the Jews. It was the only place where sacrifices and other rituals were allowed to be performed. When the Romans attempted to build upon the site a new temple to Jupiter, a later revolt was launched against Rome by Semeon bar Kokhba (135CE). However the results were unsuccessful. Kokhba was killed in battle and the Romans established a Heathen temple on the spot where the temple had stood. Today, The western wailing wall is all that is believed to have survived.

In my own understanding which though is Christian does not derive from anything but the Hebrew Bible, the Tabernacle was never mentioned as emerging within the second temple. In such a case, I question if the settlement and 2nd temple were doomed from the start. However, in beliefs more exclusively Christian, the tabernacle of David emerges in Christ (Amos 9:11, Acts 15:16) as Christ also brings a new conception of what is truly the temple. Rabbinic Judaism – CANNON – classical When once asked off guard how I knew God valued me, my response was “because I’m here.” In that sense from a Christian perspective one can see that the Jews are valued by God. Rome did not kill the Jews because of the non-belief in Christ. Johanan ben Zakkai was a Pharisee and a student of Hillel who escaped Jerusalem and continued in the shaping of classical or Rabbinic Judaism. Fleeing to Javneh, Zakkai gathered around him a group of scholars also called the Tannaim. Many of the following events in the development of Rabbinic Judaism could be said to stand parallel or in a conversation, even response to the continuing Christian developments. “Rabban Johanan ben Zakkai received the Torah from Hillel and Shammai; he used to say: If you have learned must torah, do not give yourself any credit, for this was the purpose of your creation. (Mishnah, Avoth I)” The Jewish developments continued to hold areas of difference. At Javneh, the Sanhedrin was re-established under Rabban Gamaliel II and Rabbi Joshua. ” At this new Sanhedrin, the Jewish cannon was decided. The reemergence of the Sanhedrin may have been an issue of concern in itself for Christians, yet what continues as an area of difference for Catholics is that the new Jewish cannon was translated with the bias of non-Christians and was in part a response to the new Christian writings. “Most Jews accept the canon of Javneh. However, some Jews, such as those from Ethiopia, follow a different canon which is identical to the Catholic Old Testament. ”

MISHNAH & TALMUD

After the Bar Kokhba Revolt in 135 CE, the academy at Javneh was transferred to Galilee where the Nasi was recognized by the Romans as the political head of the people of Judea (until the early 5th centuries) . In 200CE a Christian cannon was developing and at this same time the Mishna was written down by Judah Ha-Nasi (Rabbi).

The Mishna is a collection of debates and decisions of the Tannaim and contains opinions from the days of Simeon the Just. It is usually written with the minority positions first followed by the accepted opinion. It also often gives discussions of ethical maximums . It is divided into six sections (sedarim) which are divided into a total of 63 tractates (masekhtot) “The most well-known of the 63 tractates is the Ethics of the Fathers (Pirkay Avoth). ” The Tannaim also wrote midrash which is typically Biblical commentary to explain a passage, a custom, or to support a theological position. For Midrash, Rabbi Ishmael expounded 13 rules of biblical exegesis.

MISHNAH: There are four kinds of people who give to charity. One is willing to contribute himself, but he does not want others to give-he is jealous of what belongs to others. Another is willing that others give, but is unwilling to contribute himself-he is jealous of what belongs to himself. Then there is the one who both gives himself and wants others to give-he is a righteous man, and there is the man who neither gives himself nor wants others to give-he is wicked (Mishnah Avoth V)

Write these words; in accordance with these words I have made a covenant with you and with Israel (Exodus 34:27)

MIDRASH: When God revealed himself at Sinai to give the Torah to Israel, he gave it to Moses in order –Bible, Mishnah, Talmud..” write these words’ refers to the Bible ‘in accordance with these words’ applies to the Mishnah and Talmud which keep Israel separate from the heathen (Exodus R. XXIV)

The re-established Sanhedrin in Palestine held the authority, yet other academies developed in Israel and elsewhere. Interpreters became known as the Amoraim (spokesmen) and the head of each academy was the Rosh Yeshivah. Discussions (Gemara) of the Amoraim on Mishnah were compiled in the Jerusalem Talmud of the 4th century and the Babylonian Talmud of the 6th century. The Babylonian Talmud is larger and is often considered more authoritative.

KARAISM

The Torah is the center of Rabbinic life and the scribe the transformer. Yet, not all Jews have accepted the tradition of Oral Torah. The Sadducees, Essenes, and early Christians, were among such groups. Emerging in the 8th century CE, the Karaism also did “not recognize the authority of the post-Biblical tradition. ” Karaites accept the Tanakh and do not reject everything said by the Rabbis. Karaites considered it “alright to consult or rely on the Rabbinic writings.” However, they give no special weight to the Rabbinic interpretations “they deny that it is of ‘heavenly origins. ’” Interpretation lies with the individual. In some regard the Karaite rejection of the oral authority resembles an extreme version of Protestantism in Christianity which had rejected papal authority and various Catholic scriptures. Anan ben David, the founder of the Karaism said “Search ye well in the Scripture and do not rely on my opinion. "

Anan’s character has been an issue of debate between the Karaism and Rabbinic Jews. Karaites have considered him an Arab appointed Jewish supported Exilarch in Arabia. They present him as virtuous and claim the Pharisees plotted to murder him. A Rabbi report at the time regards him as irreverent. They claim that he was not appointed by the scribes and ultimately the cause of a division within the Jewish body.

Karaite communities began settlement in Egypt, North Africa, Persia, an Israel and later set up communities in Crimea, Poland and Lithuania. They are a sect which has survived to this day, however their “Jewishness” is often a matter of debate. This has lead to their escape from the Holocaust, yet they have not escaped persecution of Arab states. Among the Jewish community itself, they are not listed as a sect of Judaism on many “orthodox” web-sites which may or may not be an issue of their smaller representation, but they are accepted into the State of Israel.

Synagogue & ritual

The loss of the Temple brings up other elements of Jewish life for it had stood along with Moses in the exile and Sinai, at the center of sacrifice, ritual, and worship. Despite its destruction, its structure was transposed and incorporated into the “mythical” experience of later times both in memory of the past, rituals of present, and in hopes for the future. “One half of Midrash was devoted to the concerns of the Temple priesthood. ” In classical Judaism, Rabbis would take the role of the authorities and teachers. Yet worship includes more than Synagogue services, “Jews within the Halakhic system of the rabbis imagined the entire substance of public and private life as a kind of divine service or Avodah. ” (Orthodox and traditionalists remain committed to all-embracing halakhik patterns)

Within the loss of the temple, Rabbis replaced sacrifices with the “Sacrifice of the lips ” or prayer. The names of morning and evening prayers would come to recall the temple sacrifices. The Shakharit was the dawn offering and the Minkhah the evening grain offering. The Maariv was also incorporated in early rabbinic centuries in remembrance of temple offerings. It occurs at dusk along with the Shakharit.

Within worship services are two central activities. One would be the Amidah or Shemoneh Esrei. This is an intense public prayer which originally consisted of 18 benedictions. The 19th benediction was added in the 2nd century in reaction to the growing thread of heresy especially Christianity. The benedictions or blessings begin in a communal whisper. As it continues, recitation is taken over by the prayer leader for the Keducsha (the sanctification) as worshipers are transcended to an “other worldly” meditation. The Shma would be a moment of dedication to the covenant and meditation on the oneness and unity of God. As with Christianity the nature of this unity has often been reflected on through philosophical terms and developments.

The Rabbis reflected on such things as the nature of God, the pre-existence of Torah, free will, and the human soul. Other Jewish philosophical investigations began in the first century integrating Greek philosophy and Jewish teachings. In the first century CE, Philo had tried to integrate Greek philosophy and Jewish teaching in the to explain the God of Judaism. Jewish philosophy continued to develop, often in responses to surrounding communities. It was often to defend Jewish beliefs or maintain Jewish identity when integrating into the surrounding world. Saadiah Gaon attempted to confront challenges of the Karaites, Muslims, Zorastrians, and Hellenistic atheists in the 10th century. In later times, Judah Halevy used philosophy to defend Judaism from outside cultural beliefs and attitudes. The philosophy or Moses Maimonides was defended as necessary to keep the upper class Jews of Spain within the Jewish fold. Yet, Jewish philosophy was often an issue of controversy as it has been with Christianity.

Also to be incorporate were elements of a secret Rabbinic Mysticism (Kabbalah). It is often believed to have developed at the time of Moses and has been seen to have developed as early as the second century with such works as the Sefer Yetzirah (‘The Book of Creation”). According to this God created the universe through a process of emanation and Hebrew letters. Other developments in mysticism emerged in response to the surrounding cultures. “Against the background of the crusades and increasing anti-Semitism in Western Europe, the Hasidei Ashkenaz explored the Jewish mystical tradition. ” He felt prayer was a process of mystical ascent. Zohar was influenced by Hasidei as well as Sufi traditions in Islam. He felt the Hebrew letters could fulfill human aspirations towards prophesy.

HOLIDAYS

Holidays correspond to the Jewish calendar and remember historical events in Jewish history. With an emphasis on Moses at Sinai and the exodus, these solidify hopes for redemption. As an “ethical monotheism,” Torah is the way to repentance. With a loss of the temple, Jewish holidays can enforce messianic dreams. The following year’s holidays give insight into the Judaists’ “mythical” paradigm. The order listed is chronological from the beginning to the end of the year.

(1) Rosh Hashanah and Yam Kippur are two central Jewish Holidays. Rash Hashanah is the Jewish New Year which begins in on the first of the Jewish month Tishri (sept/oct), and lasts two days. It is a celebration of creation, God’s sovereignty and repentance. In the “myth” people are inscribed in the books of life or death and a ram’s horn (shofar) is sounded before morning prayers. It begins the 10 days of pentance which end on Yam Kippur, the Day of atonement. During Yam Kippur, Jews make confessions and the books of life and death are sealed. During this time the previous years sins are removed as a renewed relationship is restored beginning with a 24-hour abstention from food, drink, luxury and sex. This year Yom Kippur occurs on October 8.

(2)Sukkot, or the feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:33-43) remembers the years of wondering in the wilderness after the Israelite’s escape from Egypt and receiving of Torah, yet before entering the “promised land.” During the holiday, Judaists construct a Sukkah, which is a small shelter or “tent” in which meals are eaten and some sleep for the next seven days. This remembers the shelters which the Israelites constructed during their travels in the Sinai wilderness. In the times of the temple, it was a pilgrimage festival marking the end of agricultural toil. Thus while Sukkot occurs shortly after the Jewish New Year (on October 13th this year) it is the last holiday of the pilgrimage festival cycle.

(2.5)Today, holidays which enter into the ritual holiday paradigm include Shimini Atzeret (oct 20) which looks to the Torah as a companion. Chanuka occurs on Dec 21 and is followed by the 10th of Tevet Fast (Jan 5) which mourns the siege of Jerusalem following the destruction of the temple. Tu B'Shvat is an interesting holiday marking the “new year of trees celebration of nature (Feb 7). ” Purim is a major holiday remembering the rescue of the Jews of Persia from a plot to kill them (Mar 9).

(3)The first pilgrimage festival (second of the year) is the Passover (Ex 12:1-8, Lev. 23:5-8) or Pesah. It follows Purim in the cyclical pattern, thus in many ways it stands as a beginning. Pesah commemorates the liberation of Israel from Egypt during the days of Moses. In Judaism, on the first night of Pesah Judaists celebrate a special meal, the Seder, through rituals prescribed in a script called the Haggadah. The Seder is “an elaborate reenactment of the drama of becoming people Israel. ” For the following 8 days they eat thin wafers called Matah as a reminder of the afflictions of the Egyptian slaves. Pesah occurs in March or April and this year falls on April 7.th In Judaism “in every generation God delivers..in every generation every man must think of himself as having gone forth from Egypt ” In Christianity it is transposed into the holiday of Easter.

(3.5)Following the Pesah, would begin a holiday counting the days until the next Pilgrimage festival, the receiving of Torah. Counting the Omer occurs for the 50 days following Passover. Within these days would be other Jewish Holidays, many of them new to our century and perhaps influencing the mood of Judaism. Some of them are not truly “religious holidays” yet are celebrated by most Jews. A Holocaust day occurs this year on April 18th and is followed by a memorial day in remembrance of those who died for the state of Israel on April 24. The next day (April 25) is Independence Day and commemorates the states emergence in 1947. The older holiday of Ba’Omar is another holiday of mourning (May 10) and occurs slightly before Jerusalem day (May 20).

(4)The second Pilgrimage Festival, the Feast of First fruits (Exodus 23:16), Feast of Weeks (Leviticus 23:15-21), Pentecost, or more commonly referred to as Shavuot shortly follows Jerusalem day and “commemorates the central covenant pact between Israel and God, the giving of Torah on Sinai. ” This holiday is transposed into the Christian holiday of Pentecost celebrating the descent of the Holy Spirit. Judaists reenact the receiving of torah by staying awake from the evening meal of Shavout Eve until dawn in Torah study. They also prescribe to a dietary detail of dairy products in accordance to Halakhic thoughts on Mishnah. Judaists celebrate it 50 days after Passover (May 27). Christians celebrate Pentecost on the 7th Sunday after Easter.

(4.5)Following Shavuot this year is the Fast of Tammuz (July 7th) which mourns the loss of the temples. Tisha B’av is another holiday of which morns losses ?(July 28). Tu B'Av is a lesser holiday and a “celebration of rebirth, continuity and love ” (Aug 3). Finally Ellul, the last month of the Jewish calendar, is a holiday of “a somber mood” often focused on improving relationships, “reflecting anticipation of new year. ” While Ellul meets the New Year (Rosh Hashanah), in this cyclical pattern it is sometimes hard as a Christian to see what is truly the beginning and the end of the holiday pattern. This is because the last pilgrimage festival (Sukkot) is the first in the Jewish year. Thus after the new year creation (Rosh Hashanah) and then petance and atonement (Yam Kippur), one quickly emerges into a “mythology” of a lost temple and state of wondering in the wilderness (Sukkot). The Festival cycle beginning with redemption (Passover) ends in the wilderness and lack of temple (Sukkot). A Judaist would see this as a Holiday of God’s protection yet it seems to me to have a certain thematic undertone. The story of these events could paint a picture to a Christian which may or may not be appreciated by a Judaist. With the various holiday’s and Pilgrimage festivals, the thematics continue the cycle from creation, repentance and atonement to memorial events of (2) wondering/potection & loss (temple), (2.5) torah companionship, memories of short lived freedom soon destroyed, nature, memories of victory, (3) memories of liberation, (3.5) memories of recent suffering, memories of sorrow in recent events & anticipation, signs of redemption, sorrow, future redemption, (4) Receiving of Torah (4.5) mourning and loss (temples), small rebirth, somber anticipation (1) New Year renewel/creation pentance atonement. While there is an emphasis in Lutheran-Christian relations to consider Judaism a living religion, (for whatever that means), from my own biased Christian impression, there seems to be no break in the cycle or that final liberating thematics of freedom in the present tense in the memorial events themselves.

CHRISTIAN…would turn these holidays to

While remembering the “Old Testament” is meaningful, a Christian will find many of the central Judaic stories and concepts as finding their ultimate fulfillment in the new. The coming of the Messiah would bring a transformation of the pilgrimage festivals and from my Christian perspective bring a different more liberated reality. Wondering (Sukkot) would not be celebrated yet would meet atonement, repentance and liberation (Passover). Passover would meet birth (Pentecost). This would bring on Creation (Rash Hashanah) yet there would be no return to a missing temple.

Sabbath

What takes the place of the Temple for Judaists is the Sabbath. “In Talmudic tradition, the wilderness Tent of Meeting was completed on a Sabbath. As Christians find the tabernacle emerging in Christ, and the temple being his followers (1Co. 3:16) for Judaists the Sabbath replaces both as a temporal structure where God’s presence is consecrated. ” Thus, when work for Sabbath preparation ends, none of the other activities are allowed which would have been involved in the construction of the temple long ago.

The Sabbath is central in Judaist life. The Sabbath commemorates God’s resting after creation (Gen 2:1-4, Ex 20:11). Judaists also consider it a day of freedom and associate it with the exodus and Law of Moses. “Remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the Lord, your God brought you forth from there with a might hand and with an outstretched arm; therefore the Lord your God commanded you to observe the Sabbath day"( Deut. 5:15). The Sabbath works to “create a sense of discontinuity with everyday life, ” a “freedom” from the concerns of the week.

While it holds many similarities to the Christian understanding of Sabbath it also differs in many ways. The Jewish Sabbath does not occur on Sunday, but begins on Friday night and continues until Saturday night. The Christians came to celebrate Sabbath on the Sunday in accordance to the day Christ rose from the dead. The Judaists celebrate it beginning on Friday night because the days in Genesis are described as beginning with dark and ending with light. Judaic tradition is also distinct in the restrictions they place on work during the Sabbath. Torah prohibits "melachah" (Mem-Lamed-Alef-Kaf-Heh), or the kind of work that “is creative, or that exercises control or dominion over your environment. ” On the Sabbath there is to be no work, nor bringing into being anything which did not priorly exist. There is also to be no taking out of existence something which had priorly been in existence. The Mishnah lists 39 categories of works prohibited on the Sabbath which includes such things as cooking, or writing.

For the traditional Sabbath celebration, preparations are made in advance and food prepared beforehand, (yet food may be heated over a low heat for the Sabbath period). Two candles are lit by women of the household before the Sabbath approaches and a special benediction is recited. These candles are left to burn out on their own and there is no kindling during the Sabbath. Traditionally, Judaists attend an evening service. Over an evening meal, the father “recites Kiddush, a prayer over wine sanctifying Shabbat. After dinner, the birkat ha-mazon (grace after meals) is recited. ” On the morning of the Sabbath, Judaists attend a morning serve. Sabbath departs at nightfall and the Havdalah ritual ushers in everyday time.

SYNAGOG

While the Sabbath might serve an extended purpose with the loss of the temple, from a Christian perspective Judaic holiday conscious, does not appear to present a liberation that is currently realized. For that liberation as a future rather than a present, one needs only enter a Jewish synagogue, for “the eye’s attention is drawn immediately to the eastern wall (or, in Israel, whichever wall faces Jerusalem’s temple Mount). ” Many Jews had been attracted to Synagogue worship during the 1st century. With the loss of the temple the word slowly came to bare Jewish particularity and by the 5th or 6th centuries a place of worship. A synagogue today is often referred to as “mikdah me’at” meaning miniature temple. However, in today’s world some traditional Jews, do not like referring to the synagogue as a temple, because they find it to trivialize the Jewish temple. On the eastern wall is the sight of a closet which contains the Holy Ark. Behind the curtain that covers the doors of the Ark stand the scrolls of the torah. The tamid or Eternal Lamp is slightly above the Ark often along with a menorah. All of these recall the desert tabernacle. The Lion of David, well known to Christians, often decorates the cloth’s covering the ark. Other furnishings include the Israel flag and the Shield or start of David which found origin in the medieval Kabbalist tradition. A raised platform (bimah) is where the Torah is read, and in traditional synagogues there was a separate courtroom for women. The Torah, mosaic covenant, and ultimately the Jerusalem temple is the focus.

PART II

After the Kokhba revolt in 135CE, Jerusalem lie in the hands of the Romans. The Romans turned the Temple into a shrine to the god Jupiter and renamed the city Aelia Capitolina. The Jews were at first prohibited from visiting the city, the Christians fled.

Along with the sorrows of the Jews, the persecuted Christians had refused to pay homage to the Roman state deities. However, the small and despised Christian sect grew and were eventually granted freedom of religion in the Edict of Milan of 313CE. Rome was in turmoil and by the end of the century Constantine had moved the capital of Rome to the eastern Byzantine, accepted Christianity, making it the new official religion of Rome and himself the 13th apostle. Issuing in praise and support for himself, he built the Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Anastasias), the church of the Nativity, and the Church on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem and gave the city its original name.

While Christians felt much indebted to Constantine, Judaism was mistreated and discriminated against. Thus, when the Persians attacked in the early 600s, angry and desperate Jews cooperated with the Persians showing them the way to important military strongholds. The Persians captured Jerusalem from the Byzantine Christians and with the Persian siege came the devastation of Christian churches including Anastasias (Church of the Holy Scepter) as well as the loss of the relic of Christ’s cross. In the siege, 35,000 Byzantines were killed and 60,000 taken into slavery. “There is a terrible story that Jews, seeking to revenge themselves on their former Christian masters, purchased Greek slaves from the Persians in order to massacre them. ” In agreement with the Zoroastrians, the Jews again established a Jewish Jerusalem capital for a short period.

The Persians eventually permitted the Christians to rebuild their churches and monasteries, but the Byzantines still lacked the true cross which had been stolen by the Persians. Constantinople remained for the Greeks yet it remained unhappy. In 622 Christian Emperor Heraclius led a campaign against Persia. In 627 the Persians were forced to accept peace and return Syria, Palestine, Egypt to the Byzantines. In 630, Jerusalem was conquered, and Christ’s cross returned. However, eight years later the Arab Muslims swept the Byzantine forces away. In 691 the Muslims built the Dome of the Rock at the site where the temple once stood.

HOLY LAND

While Islam appears as a very late arrival in life of Jerusalem, Muslim’s hold very ancient claims to the Holy Land and often have a different picture of ancient events. Palestinian Muslims believe themselves to have been the first inhabitants of the area as descendents of the Canaanites and Philistines. Jewish and Christian scriptures would see them as the descendents of Noah’s son Ham. Muslim Arabs believe themselves to be descendents of Shem, the eldest son of Noah, and thus share the title of “Semite” with the Jews. Muhammad is considered a descendent of Abraham and Arabs consider themselves to be descendents of Abraham as well.

While non-Muslims will usually consider Islam to have risen with the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century AD, Muslims will consider the faith to have begun in the days of Abraham. Muslims accept the same ancient Biblical prophets and patriarchs that Judaism and Christianity accept. Muslims, however, feel that many distortions had appeared in the Judeo-Christian scriptures. They feel that Muhammad had been called to set straight the interpretations of Jews and Christians, “to distinguish between true content of scriptures and what Jews and Christians claimed them to be. ”

As a Jew or Christian will often consider Muslims to have corrupted the truth, Muslims will consider it to have been corrected. Muhammad did not believe himself to be in conflict with the previous prophets that had appeared to the Jews and Christians. He saw himself as a continuation of the prophetic tradition. In Muslim eyes, Muhammad was the “seal of the prophets” and the Qur'an was the unquestionable authority. This has been highly problematic for Christians and Jews, for many of the things which Muhammad had seen as corrupted are core elements of the Jewish and Christian faiths.

One of the earliest scriptural differences occurs with the figure of Abraham. The Qur’an states that “Abraham was not a Jew nor yet a Christian; but he was true in faith and submissive (musliman [ie., to God]) and not one of the polytheistic idolaters (mush rikin)” (3:67-68). Each of the three monotheistic faiths would see Abraham in a different light, yet despite differences in interpretations of the stories, Christians and Jews would usually agree upon the Tanakh or “Old Testament’s” representation of Abraham in Genesis.

In the book of Genesis Abraham’s wife Sarai wished to have a family but was unable to bear a child so she convinced her husband Abraham to have a child through her Egyptian maidservant Hagar (Gen 16:2). When Hagar’s child was born he was named Ishmael. Sarai, probably regretting her decision, developed a sorted relationship with Hagar. Eventually, God told Abraham that he would have a child with his wife Sarai and name him Isaac (Gen 17:19).

In Genesis, God makes a covenant with Abraham. In this covenant God promises the land “from the river of Egypt unto the great river, the river Euphrates” to Abraham’s “seed” (Gen 15:18). (This would include and exceed lands seized or redeemed by Israel in 1967).

In Jewish and Christian scriptures, God’s covenant is later given to Abraham’s son Isaac, “and thou shalt call his name Isaac: and I will establish my covenant with him for an everlasting covenant, [and] with his seed after him” (Gen 17:19). The covenant continues to follow through the children of Isaac to Jacob (Israel).

Hebrew scriptures say that when God asked Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, that He said “take now thy son, thine only son Isaac, whom thou lovest” (Gen 22:2). It is a general argument that Ishmael and his descendents were not considered part of this covenant. Ishmael is often considered an illegitimate heir, in contrast to Isaac the true son of Abraham and his wife Sarai.

Genesis says relatively little on Ishmael. However, as God gives an everlasting covenant to the descendents or seed of Isaac (Gen 17:19), He also blesses Ishmael saying “I will make him fruitful and will greatly increase his numbers. He will be the father of 12 rulers, and I will make him into a great nation” (Gen 17:20-21). Muslims take this to be them and include it in the faith brought through Muhammad. They also expand the stories of and place more emphasis on Ishmael.

Muslims believe Hagar to be the second wife of Abraham and consider Ishmael a legitimate heir of Abraham. They consider him included in divine promise that the “seed of Abraham” and as his descendents, Muslims also have a right to the holy land. Often, but probably not always, Muslims will argue that this is an exclusive right because Ishmael was the eldest son. In either case they consider the “true faith” to have come through Muhammad. There is a strong conflict for Judaic Messianic hopes and Christian reverence for Palestine.

Islam traces its origins back to Abraham and Ishmael, not Muhammad. In the Qur’an, Abraham leads Hagar and Ishmael across the desert to a desolate valley. Abraham gave them a little food and water, and prepared to leave. It was not long before the food and water were finished. In a desperate search for water, Hagar ran back and forth between the two hills of Safa and Marwa. Eventually, water began to gush from the ground at what became the well of Zamzam. Hagar looked up at the sky and saw that flocks of birds were making their way toward the well. Far away, desert travelers saw the birds, and knew that they were heading for water. They followed the birds and came to the valley and the stream. They settled there in what was believed to be the beginning of the city of Mecca where Muhammad received his revelation.

In contrast with Jewish and Christian beliefs, Muslims generally accept that it was not Isaac but Ishmael whom Abraham was asked to sacrifice as his “test” of faith. In the Muslim version of the story, the devil whispered to Abraham to refrain from carrying out the terrible deed, whereupon Abraham pelted him with stones on three different occasions. As it turns out, the story was a “test” of Abraham’s faith and a ram was offered by God in the place of Ishmael.

Tracing their roots to ancient times, Muslims believe that the rock of Abraham’s intended sacrifice is the same spot where the temple once stood. While it is a matter of interpretation of the Qur’an, it has usually been thought to be the spot where Muhammad was believed to have made an ascension to heaven. It is now where the third most sacred shrine of Islam, the Dome of the Rock, stands.

HISTORY

At the time of Muhammad’s birth, the Blackstone of the Ka’ba had become the supreme sanctuary in not only in Mecca but throughout Arabia. It was a stronghold of Mecca, the economic center of Arabia. Jews lived in the Arabian lands and Christians came on trade pilgrimages to Mecca. The Arabians themselves had come from the background of a love of poetry, a valued mobility, tribal warfare and kin-ship ties.

The Quraysh were economically powerful in Mecca and to encourage trade they sought to diminish the conflicts between the warring kin-ship clans. They made pacts with them to ensure safety and influx to traders. They gave the name Haran to the area surrounding the Ka’ba. In this area, warfare was prohibited. The Quraysh continued to extend the area.

The pagans living in Arabia had worshiped Allah. As traders came to Arabia, they added their own idols and deities to the Ka’ba which the Quraysh accepted. Such concessions aided in the growth of their status. With the their growing status and the increasing reaches of the Haran came the rise of Allah’s position in the Arabian pantheon. Allah was existent in Mecca before Muhammad and had been growing in influence. “Those attributes associated with Allah before Islam ie creator of world, guardian of contractual obligations and wayfarer of fate, were preserved in the Islamic conception of him. ” The values and customs of Arabia were in many ways transposed and unified in the religion of Islam.

Muhammad history

Muhammad was born to a noble Quraysh family. However, they passed away at his youth and guardianship passed to his uncle Abu-Tǎlib. At the age of 25 Muhammad married a wealthy Qurayshite widow named Khadījah. The people, however, were unhappy. With the move towards centralization, the divide between rich and poor increased. The “inner Quraysh” became rich and powerful while those on the outside became oppressed. Greed and selfishness were present as was “infanticide among the Bedouins who lacked adequate means of substance. ”

READ QURAN/FAST

Muslims believe that Muhammad received his first revelation at the age of 40 when retreated to Mount Hirâ, troubled by the societal ills of his day. The story is that on the month of Ramadan the angel Gabriel presented him with the instructions “read.” The name Al-Qur’an is translated “the Reading. ” Muhammad was believed to be illiterate and so the transmission of these revelations are believed to be miraculous by adherents to the faith.

Muslims believe that the Qur’an, or the book (al-Kitab), is the word of God with Muhammad as the mouthpiece. Islam describes the process of the Qur’an transmission as Tanzil (causing to descend). While Muhammad did not do any actual writing, many of the revelations are believed to have been recorded in his lifetime by such people as Muhammad’s scribe Zayd. A final complilation of the material occurred shortly after his death as the writings were organized into chapters called Sūrahs. Many Muslims will argue that this process of transmission shows the Qur'an’s perfection in the face of the Judeo-Christian scriptures which it claims were “changed throughout the ages. ”

The Qur’an is written not in Hebrew or Greek, but in Arabic which the Qur’an calls the “Language of angels. ” Officially, it was not to be translated into other languages. However, special editions have been authorized with notices that only the original Arabic can truly represent it. Muslim’s believe that the Qur’an rests in the 7th heaven. It has been a matter of Muslim debate over whether its archetype in heaven was created or had always been uncreated. Yet it seems its uncreatedness is the common view. In many ways this resembles the Christian “logos” yet it is highly unlikely that Muslims will say “and the word was God.” In some ways as a Christian this treatment of the Koran makes reconciliation with Monotheism puzzling. To Muslims, Christian conceptions of the logos or the trinity would be puzzling.

Imbedded in Muslim ritual, a Muslim must take a ritual bath (Ghusl) if they had committed any major impurity before reading the Qur’an. The Qur’an’s ritual value can be further seen within the Ramadan fast, the 4th pillar of Islam. Beginning at the sight of the new moon, Ramadan is the most revered month in Islam. Besides encompassing such events as the birth of Ali and the death of Khadija, this is the month when it is believed Muhammad received his first revelation. Fasting occurs throughout the entire month from dawn until sunset. It involves abstaining from food, drink, and sex as well as typical negative moral actions. It is not an event of mourning but works to enhance moral or spiritual development and often acts as a time of repentance.

During the last 10 days of Ramadan the “Night of Power” occurs when it is thought the Qur’an was first revealed (Sūrah 97). During these last nights the Muslims take vigils to local mosques or spend the night in worship to “experience the night of power.” This is called I’tikah and “to partake in it ‘is better than a thousand months’ (Qur’an 97:3) (of worship). ” As the new moon of the next month is sighted Muslims end the fast, give special gifts to the poor, and celebrate ‘Id al-Fitr.

EARLY PREACHING

Unlike Christianity and Judaism whom believe that the message of numerous prophets are accurately preserved, Islam attributes accuracy only to the works of Muhammad. In many ways this gave Muhammad an indisputable or independent power, bringing a centrality to his life and in Muslim belief the revelations which encompassed it. The content of the Qur’an follows the events of Muhammad’s life.

Muslims believe that Muhammad was original skeptical of his revelation. He was worried that he had been possessed. “Many soothsayers of the day were believed to have been posesed by “Jinn. ” However, they believe that he was soon reassured by his wife and his cousin Waraqa ibn-Nawfal, “a blind man known as Hanif who was familiar with scriptures of Jews and Christians. ”

For the first years of his mission, Muhammad preached only to his family and close friends. His earliest followers were his wife, the popular merchant Abu-Baker, Waraqa, his cousin Ali’ and his adopted son Zayd ibn Harith. However, he was up against the Quraysh whom were dependent on the structure of the Ka’ba for their power and wealth. Waraqa warned him he would be up against persecution. His uncle Abu-Talib did not accept the faith but was powerful in the Quraysh and defended him.

RELIGION/Ritual

Muhammad, like many Christian-Judeo prophets began as a social reformer in a corrupt and unhappy community. He looked to transform the Arabian society through “uniform beliefs and a unified faith. ” Central to Muhammad’s hopes for a just and unified society was the absolute unity of God. Other deities were banished as they were thought to bring disunity. Muhammad taught complete submission to God. Within Islamic eschatology, association with anyone other than God is shirk, a major unpardonable sin.

Distinguished from his essence, Allah is often referred to by 99 names describing his attributes. The most pronounced are his might and majesty. The most mentioned are his mercy and compassion. Every Surah opens stating “Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.” He is also pronounced as “the knower.”

The first pillar of Islam, Shahadah, is the opening prerequisite to being a Muslim. It is a profession of faith in God and devotion to the mission of Muhammad. The Shahadah states, “There is no god but Allah; Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.” By uttering the first part of the Shahadah, one becomes a submitter to God. By pronouncing the second part, one becomes an adherent to the religion of Islam.

Ethical messages included such central tenants as Honoring and respecting parents, respecting others, generosity, avoiding of killing except for a justifiable cause, adultery, safeguarding orphans, justice, purity of heart and mind, humility, brotherly love and selflessness. As these tenants resemble those of Judaism and Christianity, so do other aspects of Islamic belief such as ritual.

In many ways Islamic ritual is similar to Jewish Avodah. Yet while Islam appears very seems very ritualistic they don’t always appreciate the term. Rituals are considered a reasonable by a Muslim. At birth the father whispers the call to prayer into the ears of the child. After 7 days the child gets a Muslim name as do converts to Islam. A child is later circumcised. Islamic prayer is in many ways similar to Judaism as well.

The second Pillar of Islam is the salat. This is a required prayer that is performed not 2 or 3, but 5 times a day at various times. “These five times are dawn (Fajr), immediately after noon (Dhuhr), mid-afternoon ('Asr), sunset (Maghrib), and early night (Isha'). ”As with Judaism, when praying Muslims first faced Jerusalem, however the direction shortly changed towards Mecca. In a mosque, the qibla marked by a nitch in the wall points the direction to Mecca and the leader and congregation face it when praying. The Salat can be performed in a mosque or at home, alone or with others, but before it can be approached a Muslim must first perform purification.

Purification is in large part a matter of hygiene, but the daily purification helps remind a Muslim of their religious obligations and duties. Minor impurities include such things as bleeding, breaking wind, or contact with a dog. The removal of such impurities is done through a washing called wudu’ where one washes the hands, arms, elbow, face, ears, and ankles. It can also be done through Tayammum where sand is put on a pillow and applied to the body. Major impurity includes such things as a large flow of blood, sex, or touching a corpse. For a major impurity a Muslims has a Ghusl, a full ritualized bath.

After Muslims reflect and examine their intentions for the upcoming ritual, the Muslim performs adhan or call to worship. The adhan is a fixed prayer where certain central phrases are repeated a prescribed number of times. It begins with the proclamation “God is most great” which is repeated 4 times. This is followed by the first and second parts of the Shahadah which are each repeated twice. Next is the phrase “Hasten to prayer” which is followed by the falah (“hasten to success”) which may include earthly success but centers on a success of a religious nature (“theological virtues ”). Both of these sections are announced twice as is the repeat of the opening phrase (“God is most great”). The adhan concludes with the first part of the shahada, “there is no god but God.”

Each Salat includes a cycle of standing, bowing, and touching the forehead to clean ground called Rak’a. Set phrases are recited beginning with “God is most great” and closing with “peace be with you.” Other Qur'anic passages are included such as the mandatory recession of the Qur'an’s opening chapter, the Fatihah.

Special Salats are performed on Friday’s as well as special events in the Muslim year. On Fridays there is a noon Salat occurs where Muslims meet in the mosque. Muslims are expected to partake in the full ritual bath (Ghusl) before this special Salat. A sermon is included as well as blessings on the Prophet and his family. The leading, or professional Imam delivers the sermon from a pulpit called a minbar. During the rest of the week if a group of Muslims wishes to perform the Salat together an Imam is chosen from among them.

As in traditional Judaism, worship services in Islam involve a distinction of classes. A female may serve as an Imam in a group of only females but not in a mixed congregation. On Fridays women are separated from males in the mosque and while are expected to perform the Salat, are not required to attend the mosque. However, a family may pray together because among close blood relations the separation of sexes doesn’t apply

THIRD YEAR ESCATOLOGY

Three years after the story of Gabriel’s first appearance Muhammad had received a following of about 30 deprived people. Islam preaches that Muhammad then received the instructions “arise and warn. ” As the Quraysh became threatened at the message which worked against their system of economic dependence, they took steps to eliminate Muhammad and his impoverished followers. Muhammad remained protected by his clan the Hashim and his uncle Abu-Talib. He advised his followers to take refuge in the Christian kingdom of Abyssinia.

Within the words of “arise and warn” comes the notion of eschatology. Muslims believe in heaven and hell (Jahannam). At an unknown time the “Day of Judgment” will arise at which time will be a period of waiting in which anxiety and suspicion will torment the doubter. Then will a pear a book with good and bad deeds listed, and ones fate will be determined by how the scales are tipped. Those made to suffer unjustly will then have a moment of retaliation. The people will then be made to pass over a bridge where the noble will pass with ease, while the wicked will plummet to hell.

It is believed that no one who embraces Islam will spend eternity in hell, but some may visit in proportion to their sins. Rewards will exceed the measure of their deeds. Next to associating any others with God in the worship of him, the next greatest sin is causing the death of an innocent being.

MEDINA

Persecution continued and Muhammad broke for a short period mentioning three female pagan deities. But Muhammad refused to accept the offers of the Quraysh to make room for him if he would allow the continuation of the pagan practices. His uncle Abu-Talib refused to surrender him and one of the Quraysh stuarts, Omar was converted to Muhammad’s faith. Throughout all of this Muhammad was ridiculed. “His opponents accused him of sorcery and fraudulently lifting ideas from Jews and Christians. ”

Muhammad soon met a group of pilgrims whom had come from Yathrib (Medina). These pilgrims felt Muhammad matched the image of the Messiah of their Jewish subjects (these subjects had been threatening their enemies with a future Messiah). The pilgrims went back to Yathrib and then returned to meet Muhammad in 621 CE. They signed the first pact of Al-‘Aqabah with him. The following year a group of 73 invited Muhammad to Yathrib (Medina) and vowed their allegiance in the 2nd pact of Al-Aqabah. Muhammad and a group of 100 Muslim families left for Yathrib.

Fearful of Muhammad’s new alliance and insulted at his desertion of his kinsmen, the Quraysh attempted to assassinate him. In Muslim minds, it was here when Muhammad began receiving revelations to make war upon his persecutors “until persecution is no more and religion is for Allah only. ” Muhammad escaped the attack and arrived at Medina on Sep 24, 622. This marks the first year of the Muslim colander and is called the Hegira or Hijrah. Muslims see this as the dawn of the “Islamic era and end of the Age of Ignorance (Yahiliyah). ”

According to Muslim sources “it was a Jew who called out to the Muslims that ...whom they expected had at last arrived (in Yathrib). ” Muhammad would have seen the Jews as natural allies of monotheism and sure recipients of his message. In Medina Muhammad became an arbitrator of feuds, a social and political reformer and lawgiver to an x-pagan, Muslims and Jews. As revelations befell him, he sought to unite and unify the community. He entered into Hilf (Pacts) with the rival factions, offering them freedom of internal government. Within this confederation (UMMA),“Allah and Muhammad were the ultimate source of arbitration. ” In Islam, Muhammad had made generous concessions and with the Jews with a pact securing them “equal rights of citizenship and full religious liberty in return for their support of the new state. ” They then began to show growing opposition.

Muhammad had natural Arabic protective instincts, yet the bright image of the original commonwealth appears to me to be an area that might be objected to by Judaists. The original pacts were not with the actual citizens and it seems highly unlikely that the Jews would have given a second thought in objecting an Arab Messiah. It seems questionable that they would have then congenially signed pacts with an arbitrator whom was an Arab prophet. It may have been that they had perceived Muhammad positively, it may have been a desperate attempt to secure themselves against enemies or find societal order, it may have been that they received word that Emperor Heraclius had just launched an attack against Persia, or it may have been a way to gain wealth. Yet, while this would not imply Muhammad, perceived any immediate objection (doesn’t seem like he would have been listening but concentrating on his own hopes or means), there may be other Jewish arguments from the onset.

In later times, Islamic law became known as Sharia. “Sharia, spells out the moral goals of the community. In Islamic society, therefore, the term law has a wider significance than it does in the modern secular West, because Islamic law includes both legal and moral imperatives. ” It is often argued that Jews fared better in Arab lands than Christian lands and the Qur’an states" Whoever oppresses any Dhimmi (non-Muslim citizen of the Islamic state), I shall be his prosecutor on the Day of Judgment. " However, a Jewish source states, ”The Golden Age of equal rights was a myth, and belief in it was a result, more than a cause, of Jewish sympathy for Islam. ” It appears to me that the negative historic actions of Islam were less blunt than Christian ones. Yet, it also appears that moves against the oppression of Jews would be less flexible in Islam than in Christianity for the reason that politics and military are inbedded in the policies of the central prophet.

That Muhammad said “Islam is a dominant force and not to be dominated ” with Allah and Islamic law as the arbitrator is proably not well perceived by Judaism or others, especially as Muhammad came to include a mission set to correct falsified scriptures. While Islam says there is to be “no compulsion in religion(2:56)” this does not include government and it appears the very notion of the Islamic government calls for it. If subordination to Islamic government involved offering taxes it would seem compulsion would be strongly present.

Within Islam is the Zakat or alms giving, the third pillar. While Zakat is charity in virtue also working to make the remaining wealth honorable, it is a legal obligation and acts as a tax. In Muslim countries it is automatically deducted by the government, in other counties it is closely calculated by the individual. Those who are poor are not required to pay the Zakat. While this can be taken as a very positive means to care for the less fortunate, it can also be seen as a forced coercion when it endorses Islam. This seems especially problem filled to Jews whom in prior centuries experienced Rome.

It is hard to tell how much of the negative events of Islamic oppression is imbedded in the faith itself, rather than interpretation or later policy, yet the Jewish source states of the subordination of Jews and Christians in Islamic law, “They were not allowed to ride horses or camels, to build synagogues or churches taller than mosques, to construct houses higher than those of Muslims or to drink wine in public. ” It would seem impossible to live under a government contained within a religion other than your own. Somewhat trapped, breaking a pact would then place them as a great enemy.

Religious conflict

In the Qur’an mounting opposition from the Jews over a Messiah that did not meet their expectations, led to their siding with Muhammad’s enemies. In response Muhammad declared that the “hypocrites” had deviated from true faith. He declared that the Jews had “falsified their scriptures to conceal the foretelling of his mission as the prophet of God. ” It was around this time that his revelations are considered to have lead him to change the direction of prayer from Jerusalem to Mecca.

My first experience with a practicing Muslim was a positive experience about 6 years ago. He was gentle spirited and practiced his Salat yet received a certain harassment not by Christians but by football players for his odd customs. Feeling a little sorry for but also interested in his uniqueness I got to know him a little. I asked him about what it was he believed, but I don’t remember anything except that it was a pleasant experience with a nice student.

As that summer approached, personal losses and disasters developed in my own life. As I was spiraling downward a close friend of mine began telling me of errors in the bible. It had no impact on me, my friend was always odd and I had my mind on other things. As my own disasters reached rock bottom I encountered another peculiar group of a less known religious persuasion. Suspicious, I asked them what they thought of Christ. When they responded with the question of if he were my God, I responded affirmatively and found myself powerfully and frightfully attacked by this non-Muslim, non-Jewish, and non-Christian force. My friend continued in his persistence “look Jesus never claimed to be God.” I grasped for a means to respond from the Bible, “There it is.” Other much more mysterious reassurance soon came.

I struggled for some understanding of what it might be and what was going on. Soon I found atheists attacking the corrupt Christianity and Protestant deists attacking any form of miracles, Muslims who attacked in persistence that Christianity was wrong (all in Christian or neutral domain). Such common Muslim attacks were that Christ never rose from the dead or claims such as those of the web site Islamic world of the “ 50,000 Errors in the Bible ” These were not the expressions of a friendly discussion of differences but strong attempts to show the inadequacy of my Faith at their superiority. My friend later returned from a march in Washington which led him to disassociate with any Caucasian family members and defensively run at the oppressive police force with a knife. Opened to a new world, my goals became three fold: my own original religious understanding and need, a defense of my faith and what I believed as truth, and through this a hope for the others’ place in the face of that unfamiliar mutual enemy.

Rather than attacking back at the Muslim religion, just by the nature of the position I was in, I found myself defending misconception of my own. This soon brought further charges that I was a “fundamentalist.” Not knowing where these accusations were coming from then, I later learned how fundamentalists read scripture. While never finding a contradiction with out an answer, I also realized that my approach was different than that of fundamentalists. In some ways this may have lead me to challenge the typical “critical scholarship” method in relation to the Hebrew scriptures and its assumption of contradictions. But rather than moving to the “fundamentalist” position, moving to a more unified structuring of text ordered around the exodus tabernacle and its instructions.

I don’t live in an Islamic state and there was no legal reason forcing me to be where I was. I never-the-less felt continually belittled and attacked primarily by Muslims. Living as a Christian in an Islamic government would be a frightening thought. However, it might also be a promising spot to work from. It does seem like it would be best not to challenge pride or attack, but rather resist and defend/explain one’s own beliefs when being confronted. Perhaps the methods of early Christians whom would not pay homage to the Roman state deities would be one way to respond.

JIHAD

Under the thought to “fight against them till they ceased from persecution,” Muhammad remembered the persecution in Mecca and the need to flee. Small Muslim expeditions were sent to Mecca in a defensive posture to survey the situation and dissuade tribes from siding with the Quraysh. Muhammad then pretended to attack a Meccan caravan returning from Syria in order to instigate an attack from the Quraysh . After the armies of Quraysh set off Muhammad went to the field to face them. The Muslims stood their ground at Badr. The Battle of Badr is also named the “day of decision” by Muslims. Muhammad had now taken on the role of Military commander as numerous people flocked to the religion. The Qur’an echoes:

“Allah defendeth those who are true ...sanction is given unto those who fight because they have been wronged…Those who have been driven from their homes unjustly only because they said: Our Lord is Allah…(Qur’an 22:38-40)”

“Fight in the way of Allah against those who fight against you, but begin not hostilities. Lo Allah loveth not aggressors.

And slay them wherever ye find them, and drive them out of the places whence they drove you out, for persecution is worse than slaughter” (Qur’an 2:190-191).”

“There was a sign for you in the two hosts which met: one army fighting in the way of Allah, and another disbelieving” (Qur’an 3:13).

“Lo! Herein verily is a lesson for those who have eyes. Ye slew them not, but Allah slew them” (Qur’an 8:17).

Probably the most controversial element of Islam is its military association. “Sometimes Muslims recognize a 6th pillar called Jihad. ” The greater Jihad is actually a struggle against sin, yet a smaller Jihad which takes the form of armed resistance.

Muhammad saw the Quraysh as an oppressive evil force and himself as a force bringing goodness and justice to an oppressed and then persecuted people. He saw his people as being forced to leave their land by a system of government rooted in economic pursuits and idolatry rather than Islam. This strongly parallels many attitudes over the situation in Palestine today. It is interesting that while Jihad is a defensive action, that Muhammad sought to instigate an attack from the government that he found to be corrupt. The caravan from Syria seems a ploy to bring these corrupt governments into aggression.

UNDER-ATTACKS

The success of al-Islam diminished the following year when the Quraysh struck back. Moving out to Mount Uhud, the Muslims were devastated. While a ploy prevented the Quraysh from attacking Medina, Muhammad’s prestige decreased. Many Arab tribes changed sides to support the Quraysh and many Muslims were murdered.

“Jews, despite their treaty, now hardly concealed their hostility…to declare the religion of the pagan Arabs superior to Al-Islam. ” Two Jewish tribes, the Banu al-Nadir and Qaynuqa violated their pacts with Muhammad. Conflict grew and to maintain security military action resulted. These Jews were forced to leave the settlement.

QUEYSH ATTACK

In 627 (the fifth year of the Hajrah), the “Quraysh and Ghatafan with all their clans, an army of ten thousand men, rode against Medina. ” The Jewish tribe of the Banu Qurayzah joined them. A trench was dug. A Muslim spy planted discord in the opponent’s forces (the Jews, and the corrupt governments). Cold weather prevailed. Muhammad’s enemies were forced to retreat.

After the retreat, Muhammad granted the Qurayzah Jews their request to be handed over to the chief of the Aws for judgment. According to a Jewish source, “Muhammad's followers killed between 600 and 900 Jewish men, and divided the surviving Jewish women and children amongst themselves. ” Muslims explain that this was not Muhammad’s wish.

TRUCE In the 6th year of Hijrah (628ce), after leading a campaign against a clan preparing to attack them, the tradition asserts Muhammad received a vision that he would enter the Ka’ba unopposed. With 14,000 men Muhammad left for Mecca. Warned that the Quraysh had sworn to prevent him from entering the sanctuary, the Muslims stopped at Al-Hudybiyah to negotiate options to enter Mecca as pilgrims. Sending a messenger named Othman to Mecca and thinking that he was killed the Muslims made an oath of solidarity. Discovering that Othman had not been killed, the Muslims made a truce with the Quraysh. They were to return to Medina but would be allowed to perform a pilgrimage the next year where the Quraysh would evacuate the city for three days. The Muslims were unhappy for they had wanted victory. In response they Muslims assert the victory Surah was revealed. On the 7th year of the Hijrah (629ce) after a campaign against the enemy Jewish stronghold of Kheybar, a Jewish woman attempted to poison Muhammad. While Muhammad survived, one of his companions died from the poison and it is often believed that this is what caused Muhammad’s eventual death. The next year (630) he led an attack against Syria because he had heard that the Byzantine emperor was gathering a force for the destruction of Islam. Sending a force of 3000 against the Byzantine 100,000, the Muslims were unsuccessful, but showed to be a threat.

SUBMISSION OF MECCA
While the Quraysh were faithful to their treaty with Muhammad during the 7th year, on the 8th year of the Hijrah (630ce) the Quraysh attacked a tribe in alliance with Muhammad. While they Quraysh asked for an extended truce, Muslims found this cause to march into Mecca. The Meccans surrendered. With very few casualties Muhammad captured Mecca and destroyed thousands of idols in the Ka’ba. Muhammad then sent missionaries across Arabia to teach Islam. After fighting against pagan tribes and bringing them to the new religion Muhammad appointed a governor in Mecca and returned to Medina to show his loyalty. YEAR OF DELEGATIONS In the 9th year of the Hijrah (631) Muhammad lead a campaign against Syria denouncing those who refused to participate, but returned learning the Byzantine army had not yet gathered. In the same year Muslims believe that the “Declaration of Immunity was revealed” granting only Muslims the privilege of pilgrimage to Mecca. Idolaters who were faithful to his cause were granted the right as well until their treaties expired. This was the ”Year of Deputations for persons throughout Arabia came to Medina to swear allegiance to the new emperor Muhammad.
On the10th year (632), Muhammad went to Mecca for last time pilgrimage of farewell preached from Mt. Arafat. The fifth pillar of Islam is the most powerful of the pillars. The Qur’an states “The first house of worship established for the people was at Mecca…Pilgrimage (hajj) thereto is a duty the people owe to God—those who can afford the journey”(Qur’an 3:95-97). Despite where a Muslim might live, in today’s world they are still to take the journey. Many of the policies of Muhammad’s time still exist today. Mecca and Medina (the two sanctuaries) are forbidden to non-Muslims. Thus, for a Muslim to visit them is especially strong in identifying their unique identity. A Muslim may visit Medina in what is called ziyar. A Muslim may take a pilgrimage to Mecca at any time of the year in what is called umra.’ But one may perform the Hajj only during the Hajj month. Before entering Mecca “Muslims enter a state of ritual concentration known as ihram. ” Abstaining from certain activities such as sex and cutting their hair. Muslims males dress in white robes supposedly to decrease the distinction between the various classes, remind them of their mortality and bring about a ritual unity. The pilgrims next stand near the “mount of Mercy” where from noon until sundown they repent of sins. The strictest of legalities in enforced as a Muslim who does not perform this rite on the set specific day, the pilgrimage is voided. Entering Mecca, the Muslims circle the Ka’ba seven times in the ‘umra ceremonies. Remembering their ancient roots, they then pray at the station of Abraham, run between the hills of Safa and Marwa where Hagar had looked for water, and drink the water of Zamzam. They then travel out of Mecca to Mina for 5-6 days where the standing ceremony is performed. They also enact the sacrifice of the animal that had been sacrificed instead of Ishmael along with the stoning the devil that had tempted Abraham. They then cut their hair as a sign of the end of the ihram. An optional farewell circling of the Ka’ba is then performed as they depart from Mecca and given the new identity and title Hqajji. On the 10th year, a new military expedition was developing against the Byzantines as Muhammad died on June 8, 632. The Byzantines had just recovered the land and the cross. Six years later the Muslims would conquer them.

THE PROBLEM.
My attitudes thus far lack the elements of diversity and aren’t formed but some things seem pretty embedded in their faiths. Judaism will never surrender the hope for Jerusalem and the Holy Land. Muslim faith will never all give up the Dome on the Rock nor belief in the unity of Islamic government. These are irreconcilable differences. Islamic government is oppressive to all but Muslims. Zionism oppressive to all but Jews. There is some limited flexibility in these. However, on religious grounds while things might be able to hold some temporary peace accord, on their own these conflicts will never be resolved. With outside government assistance, neither side will ever truly be happy. I think Christians messed up when they grabbed onto the Byzantines as their savior and departed the “in this world but not of this world” concept. Christian remorse focusing only on the negatives of certain religious figures such as Luther void of context and insight into the person and times only darkens the image of the Chruch which doesn’t help anything. Christian biased and hasty support for Jews only increases Arab hostilities, which threatens the Jews more. Western support is the Quraysh to them. Palestinians are those Meccans forced to leave their land and the Palestinians do seem mistreated. Ultimately, I think humanitarian issues should be the concentration. ---------- Looking at the negative from the 20th century, history has held many Christian responses have held disastrous results. On one side many Christian attitudes emerged in which the Jews had became especially cursed by God, deserved special punishment for a disproportional wickedness, or “shown their place.” There was often a lack of compassion or understanding as the divide increased. As Christendom grew to be a majority, to proclaim such assumptions into a relationship of hate is domineering and ultimately oppressive and counter-productive. However, a Christian can’t erase the New Testament’s positive perceptions of what constituted the Temple or of how closely the destruction of the temple followed the death and resurrection of Christ. I would agree that one problem from the Christian side was Triumphalism. Yet one of the difficulties in discussing the common issues and efforts for Jewish-Christian relations is that the terminology used could mean many different things and least to me these terms either usually partial or lacking in some way. Triumphalism is one of these words. One group defines triumphalism as “The exclusivist view that Christianity is superior to all other faiths and provides the only path to salvation. There are now seen to be many ways to the divine. ” Nothing bothers me more as I would imagine many people of other religions. If one did not think their beliefs were superior they would believe something else. Such a view is also contradictory. It merely claims that it is the right path. It is a hopeless cause in dealing with pluralism and it oftentimes only increases tensions. Others condemn Triumphalism that "becomes an extended concept when it suggests that this triumph includes victory over non-Christians…that non-Christians might be evil, or satanic…foes. ” This would obviously be something to be rejected. It would seem that such an attitude is often promoted to younger children without explanation. While this does not seem fitting to a discussion of Judaism. I would mention, however, that I think at times that wording can be misunderstood. What does it really mean to be satanic? Does satanic merely mean a wolf in sheep’s clothing or could it also mean a lamb within a cage? Could satanic imply that someone valuable with light is trapped behind something that keeps them parted from the unearned salvatory efforts of God and at times this might even involve hasty or mislead barriers placed by Christian? Could this be in part involved in Luther’s thinking to include his objection to the church’s power over the Eucharist at his time? Does Satanic lead to distinguishing of that light? I would never apply this to Judaism, however I think the terms are misused and misunderstood. The notion that “I am better than you the enemy” and attempts to force conversion or destroy the enemy’s person is ultimately the problem with triumphalism. It isn’t unique to Christianity it is unique to humanity. The notion of undeserved grace, the Biblical common ground, the appreciation of the enrichment of many Judaic customs, and the value of the Jewish individual along with simple faith would seem promising concentrations in preparation to dialogue with Judaism. However, I don’t think Christians need to loose their own identity or ought try and stretch the truth for positive relations. I think that holds many unrealized problems. I don’t think discussing differences is bad if it is done truthfully and holds some form of common ground. The Christian mission is important and it is ultimately a statement of the truest and deepest concern in faith. Positive dialogue could serve in its function. Within Herold Ditmanson’s book on Lutheran Jewish relations, he presents two different Lutheran positions in the relationship between Christians and Jews. The fist is a traditionalist view. Within this view is a moral commitment as well as a sense of mission. It also contains a theology of replacement that Judaism is a “defective and replaceable religion from a theological view point. ” The other view is labeled a revisionist view. It endorses moral commitment combined with a theology of recognition. They do not feel a moral commitment is possible without recognizing that Judaism is a “living religion, a true covenant between God and his people. (13)” This view does not believe that the Jewish faith was rejected or that the Christianity replaced Israel as the people of God. They support moral commitment combined with a theology of recognition and a program of dialogue. In my mind, the word replacement isn’t completely right as much falls in line with Christ’s words, “I came not to abolish the law and the prophets but to fulfill them” (Matt 5:17). Despite how one relates Judaism to the law, this does not truly relate the image of replacement. As for the tabernacle it is said, “After this I will return and rebuild David’s fallen tent/tabernacle” (Acts 15:16). This does not seem new (ex-nihilo) but rather as something emerging. In Hebrews 9:11 “he went through the greater and more perfect tabernacle that is not man made” the image of a fuller realization seems presented. As for the continued covenant of the revisionist view, while perhaps lacking a real analysis and am somewhat reluctant to mention, this seems hard to reconcile with Hebrews 8:13 “By calling this covenant “new” he has made the first one obsolete and aging will soon disappear.” It perhaps bears some weight to eschatological themes regarding the earth or land or of human finitude standing in contrast to an internal and eternal “new” covenant and “kingdom.” The question of the promise to the Jews again seems to relate to the question of what constitutes being Jewish and how Christ is considered from Judah. This seems touched upon in Galatians 4:23 and perhaps that is looked upon by Christians in a “natural way.” With Judaism it seems less about replacement and more like a bird within an egg. How do you treat the egg? Do you crack it or cook it, hatch it before its time, or do you tell it never hatch? Do you thicken the walls? How nourishing is the yoke? One major problem is in thinking God has abandoned or rejected the Jews “his nest” for all eternity and I think it owes much to the doctrine of predestination which as I see it generally acts as a false interpretation to deal with the complexity of divine grace. It might be seen instead as the receiving of grace not being an action or work but the negation of work-- The negation of the act of refusing grace. Ultimately I would think Jews are guided as everyone else is and in time will experience a “fuller realization” with the additional enrichment that many Judaic rituals have brought to their experience. Many Christian attempts in history may have only thickened the shell. A difficulty within this however, would be the tendency to consider Jews as a collective group on course to later enter emerge into the “new” covenant at some removed date rather than as valued individuals in the here and now. As a whole, I would think they would hold a high place in the “divine economy” however I don’t know what that place is. I do tend to think of the book of Job and with Job he was ultimately guided into a grace but not with a little new realization first. The problem seems that everyone is trying to secure power some for existence and some for domination. This includes the Jews, Byzantine Christians, and Muslims. Zionism doesn’t at a glance seem any different. I really can’t see anything but my own religious beliefs on this. The answer appears to be put ones self on the line, resist falsehood, don’t let pride get in the way, speak truth, “hope faith but the greatest of these is love” and if your wiped out your wiped out. Christ said his kingdom was not of this world. He got wiped out but he rose. Its easier said than done. Yet, as Judaic and Christian beliefs soon parted ways anti-Christian and anti-Semitic attitudes developed. This is an extremely difficult area to know how to begin approaching as a Lutheran. Whenever it is approached it seems to be done from one dimension which ultimately leaves the other dimensions unaccounted for and misrepresented and in so leading to further problems. It is also difficult to approach to approach it from our day and age looking back at theirs. It is also hard for me to look back in time from my own life experiences of anti-Christian attitudes at the end of the 20th century, for they are primarily attitudes, without sounding insensitive to horrors of the middle of the century for the Jews. My experience leads itself to the idea that dismissal of false accusations is definitely good, but it seems to extend itself to imply the dismissal of any participation in the human condition and this contributes to the belief that Christianity is the cause of all evil. There is a stigma attached to saying anything negative about anything or anyone Jewish. Right now I myself am troubled by such a stigma. While the church has not always done the right thing, and a distinction between the church and the faith is important, the church itself is often given an unfair overly dark image in the mind of mainstream society as I know it. These two things I would imagine continue to feed anti-Semitic notions whom would again vent their anger upon the Jews. Within this, I sometimes wonder if there is a generational gap between me and some of those at the stage of publishing books. For instance, Erik Black in his book “Parallel realities” had mentioned how the crusades are usually treated as a heroic event in western history. I have never studied the crusades and from what I know would not consider the crusades to be good. Yet, the normal attitude presents them as an uninstigated Christian attack. Often in our society it seems that a relitivism in enforced which includes everything but the church as good. I would think the first place to start in Christian responses would be for Christians to profess its guilt for standing as people in opposition to the message of the faith. This is much different than saying “the church professes its guilt.” The next would be to express a shared humanity. Context cannot be excluded, and the meaning of Christian mission better lived and explained. It is not as much the mission which is problematic, but from conversations with Jews it appears that it is the tone. MESIANIC/Jerualem…… “Rabbinic Judaism teaches that coming of messiah depends on adherence to torah. ” Whether this is through the Messiah, or modern mesianic age or “Messianic hope is bound with the restoration of the temple cult and house of David. ” Yet they are not alone in the desire for Jerusalem. redemption whenever people study torah, whenever opened to the commandments -redemption on daily basis not just in climatic events like exodus-Jews pray for the proclamation of freedom then for the ingathering of the exiles to the promised land (ME>restoration of David) In classical Judaism the equivalent of salvation at the sea will be the restoration of Israel to the land and reconstruction of the Temple and of Jerusalem =after second temple destroyed in 70 AD the rabbis looked forward to an earthly messiah