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Geography & Prehistory Notes:

Prehistory - 3000BC

Early Peoples In Paleolithic Times

I.What is Paleontology?
Study of life in prehistoric times
Trace the existence of humans to Homo or Hominid 4.4million years ago
Before agriculture developed
Made and used tools

II.What are Hunters Gatherers?
Traveled in groups
Fire, clothes, language
Traveled near Beijing, China
Africa
Never settled, Nomads
Homosapiens/Neanderthals existed in Paleolithic Era
Cro-Magnon in Europe lived in more permanent shelters and caves
Used art and cave paintings

III. What is the Neolithic Revolution?
Revolution: signifies a time of great change
Change of human behavior between 65000 and 30,000 BC
Different sites over long period
Marked a shift from Hunting and Gathering to Agriculture
Thailand, Fertile Crescent, China, and Mexico
Skara Brae: Scotland dedicated to herding, hunting and fishing

IV.What is the importance of Agricultural Life?
More intense and organized than hunting and gathering
PROS: steady supply of food, more could survive, families and communities grew
CONS: more constant work for success, had to be organized
Waiting for the crops to grow led to permanence, growth of society, care of infants, improve lives
Allowed time for innovation, technolgy, religion to develop, and central governments

V. What role died technology play in the Neolithic Era?
Developed rapidly
Wheel, animals, weaving, using metal for tools, weapons
Artisans: craft makers....led to SPECIALIZATION

VI. What caused Cultural Diffusion?
Increases as individuals traded and traveled outside the community
Small governments developed to make decisions involving the entire community
Example: water rights, irrigation, grain storage, penalties for bad behavior, and defense

VII. What are some important features of ancient civilizations?
Specialization in jobs
Led to different occupations, artisans, tool makers, potters, brick layers, soldiers, etc.
Makes people dependent on others for their needs: Interdependent
Led to social ranking: people ranked by their jobs

VIII. Why were people ranked in social classes?
Priests and nobles at the top
Wealthy Merchants
Artisans
Vast majority: (peasant farmers, etc.)
Slaves: lowest social level...often came from poor families who sold themselves into slavery to pay their debts. Prisoners of war
Many women and children

VIIII. What is the importance of Art in Ancient Civilizations?
Expressed the beliefs and values of the people who created them
Temples, palaces.....reassured people of the power of government and religion

Writing:
Important new skill: 
Pictograms: simple drawings to show words
Ideograms: Ideas
Specially trained people called: Scribes
Learned to read and write...educated and kept records..could lead to political power
9/12/2003

Notes Chs.2-3

The Crossroads of the World
3 continents meet: Africa, Asia, and Europe
Subject to frequent invasions and migrations from the mountains and Asia Minor. Mesopotamia was difficult to unify. There was a constant flow and exchange of ideas 
Within the Crossroads of the World is The Fertile Crescent
A Crescent shaped band of fertile land that stretches from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. Bordered in the south by the Arabian Desert, in the East by the Zagros Mountains, in the north by the Armenian Plateau, and in the west by the Mediterranean Sea. This is where farming begins. Within The Fertile Crescent is Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia
In ancient Greek these words mean: Meso = middle, between, Potamia = River (hippopotamus, The Potomac)
The "Land Between the Rivers" is formed by the Tigris and Euphrates River. These rivers originate in the Armenian Plateau. They are about 1,000 miles apart and run parallel between 50 and100 miles apart. These rivers flood in the spring or early summer, or sometimes not at all. Unpredictable and at times savage with frequent flash floods. Summer droughts and hot desert winds create dust storms. The difficult climate led to a need for strong centralized governments.
Sumerian Civilization
@ 4,500 Farmers and Herders began settling in the Tigris and Euphrates River valley. They began planting and building small villages. @4,000-3,500 these settlements were conquered by nomads from the Armenian Plateau. This is the beginning of Sumerian Civilization. Sumer was made up of City-states such as; Ur, Erech, and Kish. These cities had 10,000 or more people living in them. Each city was independent and had it's own chief god. Everything in the city was the property of the god and was totally dependent upon that god. The Priests alone could appease the fierce gods. The cities were ruled by the ENSI, or the Chief Priest. Eventually Warrior kings will rule these cities.
Sumerian Religion
" Mere man - his days are numbered; whatever he may do, he is only wind." The Epic of Gilgamesh
The Mesopotamian Welt Anschaung (world view) was pessimistic. Man was a slave to the gods and the gods were indifferent masters at best, at worst they were mean and vengeful.
Some Sumerian gods:
Gods	Anu	Enlil	Enki	Ishtar	Marduk	Ninmah
Powers	sky god-authority	god of the storm	god of the eternal sea	goddess of love	god of war	mother earth goddess-creation

History of the Kingdoms and Empires of the Ancient Middle East
By 3,000 BC there is much warfare among the city-states.

Eannutum of Lagash
Conquers UR, Kish and Umma. He commemorates his victory by erecting The Vulture Stele, a stone monument with three panels. The first depicting the king marching off to war; the second, the destruction of the enemy; third, vultures carrying away the dead.
Sargon Of Akkad 2350 BC

Considered the first to build an empire, Sargon was also noted for his humble beginnings. According to legend his mother was lowborn and couldn't keep Sargon, so she set him adrift in a reed basket on the Euphrates River, where the goddess Ishtar protected him. He wound up on the shores of Kish, where he became King and ruled for fifty years. He conquered Mesopotamia and Syria. He was responsible for protecting trade caravans with his army, repairing and extending the irrigation system, and having his scribes' copy existing Sumerian religious, literary and scientific works. They wrote in CUNEIFORM.
After Akkad reigned supreme the city of Ur gained supremacy. During the period 2150-2050 BC Ur-Nammu was a ruler who compiled early law codes.
Hammurabi

The supremacy of Ur ended with the Amorite invasion of Mesopotamia. The Amorites establish Babylon as their capital and worship Marduk as their chief god. This is the first Babylonian Empire. The sixth King of the Amorites was Hammurabi (@1800B.C.). Hammurabi is responsible for the first written law code. This code was found in 1901 AD on a black stone slab of two panels.

The first panel shows Hammurabi being handed the laws by the god Shamash on the top of a mountain, emphasizing their divine origin. The second panel contains 3,600 lines of writing (the laws). The basic principle in these laws is "� an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth�" These laws regulated practically all aspects of life, such as; property, inheritances, business, agriculture, adoption, prices sales contracts, and the rights of women, slaves and children. Cases were tried in local community courts. 
After Hammurabi's death:Rebellion weakened the empire leaving it open to invasion.

The Hittites
This Indo-European tribe invaded Mesopotamia about 1550 BC. They adopted Babylonian culture, ideas and religion. They brought with them the knowledge of iron working, this gave them an advantage over their enemies who used Bronze. This was a closely guarded state secret till 1,200 BC when the secret got out. The Hittites lost their advantage.
The Assyrians

Built the largest, mightiest empire the world had ever seen. It stretched from Media to the Halys River to Egypt.
"� it is possible that they owed this achievement to the unity of their nation, vigorous character, skill of officials and a long line of able kings." Charles A. Robinson Jr.
They acquired a reputation for cruelty without parallel in history. Enemies were routinely flayed, impaled, and butchered �alive. Used as a regular pattern of conquest to strike fear in their enemies and subjects. Whole populations were transported to far-flung regions of the empire. This discouraged rebellion and broke national resistance.
Tiglath Pilesar III (745-727 BC) created a highly disciplined army which was organized into four sections: heavy infantry, light infantry, cavalry (chariots), and a siege train.
He set up a system of Imperial Provinces with governors appointed by the Emperor. This was an effective and efficient system.
Ashurbanipal (669-626 BC) was hated by his subjects. His problem was decreasing manpower, to counteract this he began to use mercenaries in his army. By the end of his reign Assyria was besieged by outside invaders and weakened by internal revolt.
By 612 BC Ninevah was sacked and burned by the combined forces of the Medes, Chaldaeans, and the Scythians.

The Babylonian Revival (2nd Babylonian Empire)
Nebuchadnezzar ruled from 605-562 BC
He rebuilds Babylon, and built one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, for his wife. His empire is destroyed by a revolt from the East.
The Persian Empire

In 550 BC Cyrus leads a revolt against the Medes, by 539 BC he has conquered Babylon, by 530 BC he has conquered Asia Minor and the Fertile Crescent. Cyrus was a wise ruler and a remarkable military leader. Who earned the sobriquet Cyrus the Great for his tolerant attitude towards his conquered subjects. Examples of this are his allowance of conquered peoples to retain their local leaders, respect of local customs, and the allowance of local religions. He died in 529 B. C.
His successor was the mad Cambyses (529-522 BC) who conquered Egypt for the Persians. He died without a successor.

Darius 522-486 BC became the King after an Agreement was reached with potential rivals. ( Herodotus P. 241) He conquered to the outskirts of India, gaining control of the Indus River. His vast empire was organized into 20 provinces called Satrapies. A Satrap (governor) ruled each Satrapy (province). Royal Inspectors known as the "eyes and ears of the king" closely watched the Satraps. He built the Great Royal Road, which connected the four capitals of the Persian Empire (Sardis, Susa, Babylon, and Persepolis). This road was 1,600 miles long. Persian messengers could cover this distance in 10 days. (Herodotus P. 556) This Empire will last to 331 BC
The Religion of Persia
Persians originally had been polytheistic following the pantheon of Mesopotamian gods. About 600 BC a man named Zoroaster founded a new religion. Zoroastrianism proclaimed the world was a battleground for good and evil. The forces of good were led by Ahura Mazda the creator of Heaven and earth. A wise and holy god, he was the only god. He battled against the forces of Ahriman the evil spirit and ruler of the forces of darkness. At the end of the world there would be a final battle. The good will be rewarded with eternal happiness, the evil would be thrown into a pit filled with demons.
Contributions of Smaller States
The Phoenicians
The Phoenicians were great traders and sailors who lived along the Eastern Mediterranean coast, where modern Lebanon is today. Their main cities were Tyre and Sidon. The land was poor except for Cedar trees. By 1,200 B. C. they were the greatest traders. They traded cedar, iron, bronze, purple dye, textiles, tin. They traded with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Spain, North Africa, and Britain. Through their trade they became known as the "Carriers of Civilization". Wherever the Phoenicians went they brought their alphabet. This alphabet had 22 letters and no vowels. Each letter represented a sound (phonetics). It was easy to learn and versatile for different languages.
The Lydians
A small empire in Asia Minor, capital: Sardis
Introduced coined money that was made of precious metals and imprinted with the image of the King. This image was its guarantee of value and weight. This begins the money economy of the Ancient Middle East. The most famous king was Croesus, from were we get the phrase, "�as rich as Croesus�".
The Hebrews
Their history is found in the Old Testament. The Hebrews important contribution is their Ethical Welt � Anschaung. Their beliefs include the monotheistic foundation of three of the world's great religions; Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They believed that people and rulers should lead moral lives. This grows out of the first 5 books of the Old Testament, known as the Torah. In the Torah are the Ten Commandments, the guide to moral behavior. No one was above the law of God. The view of God changes throughout the Old Testament. In the beginning God is angry with fierce punishments, eventually the view changes to a more compassionate, understanding God. The message of God was told by His prophets. They were messengers who revealed the Will of God. They taught and scolded, stressing respect for the individual, concern for the poor and obedience to God's laws. About 2,000 BC the Hebrews migrated into Palestine, the far end of the Fertile Crescent. This land was the "Promised Land" given to The Jews by God. Some Jews went to Egypt during a famine. There they became slaves. Moses led them out of slavery during the reign of Ramses II. When they returned to Palestine they had to fight the Philistines (David vs. Goliath). As king, David united the tribes of Israel. His successor was Solomon, known for his wisdom. The capital was at Jerusalem (Jeru Shalom � city of peace). Here, Solomon built the famous Temple of Solomon that held the Ark of the Covenant. After his death the Hebrews were divided by civil war. Eventually, they were overrun by the Assyrians in 722 BC. In 586 BC Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Temple, enslaved the Hebrews and sent them to Babylon. This is when the Ark of the Covenant disappeared. Cyrus freed the Hebrews from their captivity. Israel however, will not be a free state until 1948 AD.

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Global History I: Ancient China Notes
Geography
River valleys and coastal plains support the bulk of the population.
China is geographically isolated.
In the east 
Pacific Ocean
In the south 
dense subtropical rain forests
In the southwest 
the Himalayas
In the west 
rugged mountains and plateaus
In the northwest 
rugged mountains and plateaus
In the north 
the Gobi desert 
There is no geographical barrier in the northeast. That is where the Chinese built the Great Wall. Because of its isolation China develops independently and uniquely.They referred to their kingdom as: The Middle Kingdom (because it was the center of the universe.)
The Yellow River (Huang He)

Named because of the silt that colors the river. This silt is called LOESS. This is what gives the Yellow River its muddy color. It also makes the Yellow River valley fertile. The Yellow River valley is subject to frequent floods and droughts. This river also goes by the name The River of Sorrows. 
It is in the Yellow River Valley that the earliest Neolithic farming began. Between 5,000-3,000 BC people began settling into permanent villages. 
Shang Dynasty 1600-1122BC
The capital city was Anyang. Shang kings ruled over Northern China. Kings ruled the capital city and the immediate countryside. Nobles governed the outlying lands. The nobles paid tribute, performed military service.
Chinese writing
Chinese writing (Calligraphy) develops during the Shang Dynasty. Chinese writing is made up of pictograms and ideograms. Pictogram: symbol representing an object. Ideogram: symbol representing an idea or action. In Shang times there were over 3,000 symbols. Eventually there will be over 50,000 symbols. This writing has been in use for over 3,500 years. Difficult to learn, only the wealthy had time to read and write.
Shang religious beliefs
Polytheistic believing in gods of nature. The Chief god was Shang Ti. He presided over Heaven. The gods' power was awesome causing floods, droughts, locust plagues, etc. People tried to influence the gods by using the spirits of their Ancestors as go-betweens. The Ancestors would influence the gods to bring the people either good or bad fortune. People communicated with their Ancestors by using oracle bones. Usually a turtle or ox bone, priest scratched questions into the bones and then applied a heated rod to the bone. This caused it to crack. The priest then interpreted the cracks to discover the answer to the questions.
Classes in Shang China
King: performed religious and political duties in the capital. He was a virtual slave to the rituals of Ancestor worship.
Nobles and Priests: were governors and owned vast amounts of land.
Peasants: paid a portion of their harvest to the king or their governor. They were laborers and foot soldiers.
The Shang Chinese lived in extended families, where ancestor worship and respect for age and duty was important.

Shang Achievements
Bronze working 
Tools, weapons, armor, religious objects 
The lost wax method was used.
the yoke, the harness, the spoked wheel, 2-horse war chariot 
365 � day calendar with 12 months.
Shang civilization spreads in many directions, east along the Yellow River. Also in Manchuria, Mongolia, and as far as central Asia.
Chou (Joh) Dynasty (1122-256 BC)
Wu Wang captures Anyang in 1122 BC. This is the beginning of the Chou (Joh) Dynasty. The Chou justified their conquest by claiming they had obtained the Mandate of Heaven (authorization to rule from the gods).

Chou Government
The Feudal System
"Lords held land that in theory belonged to the king or other lords. The local lords governed these lands, protected the people who farmed them, and owed military and other services to the to the king or other lords. Local lords often became virtually independent."
The king ruled his capital city and the surrounding land. Nobles governed large provinces throughout the kingdom.
The Warring States period (771-256 BC) occurs during the Chou dynasty. The provinces became strong enough to wage an era of constant war.
The Chinese Bureaucracy develops during the Chou dynasty. (Bureaucracy: system of organizing government by departments or Bureaus. Examples: finance bureau, war department, records, etc.)
Classes 
King 
Government officials 
peasants 
artisans and merchants 
soldiers
Chou economy
Food surpluses supported large cities. Farmers used fertilizer, iron tools, and ox-drawn plows. There were large-scale government irrigation projects. Metal coins were issued; this was the beginning of the money economy in China. The gap between the wealthiest and the poor was great at this time.
Three Schools of thought in Ancient China
Three schools of thought (philosophies) emerge during the Chou Dynasty. They are Confucianism, Taoism (Daoism), and Legalism.
Confucianism
Confucius (Kung Fu Tzu) was born about 551 BC in northeastern China. He was born during the Warring States period. He became a scholar and a minor government official. He desired a return o more peaceful and harmonious times. To do this he developed a code of conduct based on high moral standards. His ideas slowly won acceptance. Confucius wanted an organized society. He felt a good society was one that preserved peace and order among individuals and between people and their government. His code stressed these four virtues: Loyalty, courtesy, hard work, and kindness. If these were practiced the result would be peace and harmony. He also emphasized the five relationships.
Ruler and Subject
Parent and Child
Husband and Wife
Older Brother and Younger Brother
Friend to Friend
If everyone obeyed the duties and obligations of these relationships the result would be an orderly balanced society would be the result. They also stressed FILIAL PIETY, which is respect for your parents and elders.
The teachings of Confucius were concerned with life on earth. The Chinese religion and Confucianism are compatible.
Eventually Chinese Law will be based on the principles of Confucius. Confucianism becomes the heart of Chinese traditions.
Taoism (Daoism)
Founded by Lao Tzu around 600 BC. His teachings are found in the book the Tao Te Ching. The goal in life is to be tuned to the Tao. The Tao means The Way it is described as a universal force that cannot be defined, only felt. The Tao is also the way or road you take to reach your goal. Harmony was reached through contemplation. Taoist studied nature and stressed the simplicity of all things. The studying of nature led the Chinese to greater technological advances.
Legalism
Developed by Han Fei Tzu. A stable society could only be created by a strict, efficient government. The ruler should have absolute power. There should be unquestioning obedience to authority. Legalists did not believe that people were capable of loyalty, honesty, or trust. It was only the threat of harsh punishment that would ensure order.
The Unification of China

Ch'in Dynasty (221-210 BC)
The Ch'in Dynasty begins with the rule of Shih Huang Ti (1st Emperor). He ruthlessly centralized power. He imposed unity on China. He ruled through the philosophy of Legalism. He eliminated opponents by execution if necessary.
During his reign he built roads, dug the Grand Canal connecting the Yellow and the Yangtze Rivers, and issued coins. He began construction of the Great Wall of China. The Great Wall is 1,400 miles long. His empire collapsed shortly after his death.
He was buried with an army of life-size terracotta soldiers.
The Han Dynasty (210 BC-220AD)
This great dynast expanded the borders of China. This dynasty ruled through the philosophy of Confucianism. Wu Ti (140 �87 BC) was the greatest emperor of the Han Dynasty. His name means the warrior emperor. He drove back the Huns back into Central Asia. He established a peace that would last 200 years. Han soldiers patrolled the empire and the important trade routes. The large empire created a need for well-trained government officials. The civil service exam requirements gave rise to an efficient educational system.
The Civil Service Exam was needed to get a job in the bureaucracy. They took years of study to pass. They were based on the works of Confucius. There were local, provincial, and national tests. Some of these tests took 3 days. The finals were in front of the emperor. The Civil Service Exam provided stability to China through the many dynastic changes.
Chinese Art and Science
By 100 AD the Chinese had a dictionary of over 10,000 characters.
Inventions 
Paper, wheelbarrow, watermill, silk loom, written histories, accurate calendar
The Silk Trade
Silk comes from the cocoon of the silkworm. It is light, easy to carry, and very expensive. The trade route to the west was called the Silk Road. Chinese Silk was bought and sold in Rome!!
Through trade Buddhism entered China. It was very comforting to the peasants because it recognized that suffering was a part of life and it offered hope.
The Han Empire will collapse because of weak leadership, and a failing economy. Civil wars and invasion will destroy the Han Dynasty.

Global History I: Ancient India
Geography:
India is a peninsula 
Bay of Bengal in the West 
Arabian Sea in the East 
Indian Ocean in the South 
It is isolated by the two highest mountain ranges in the world: 
Himalayas. 
length; 1,500 miles long 
Average; height 19,000 ft 
Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain at 29,026ft. 
The Hindu Kush 
average height 15,000 ft. 
The Hindu Kush has the Khyber Pass (The Gateway to India) 
India is divided into three regions: The Northern Plains, The Deccan Plateau, and the coastal plains.
The Northern Plains contains the three great rivers of India: The Indus, the Ganges, and the Brahmaputra. These rivers are wide, slow, not subject to flooding except in the Deltas. They provide irrigation and transportation. The Northern Plains is the most productive agricultural region of India.
The Deccan Plateau: separated from the Northern Plains by the Vindhya Mts.
East and west are the Ghats 
Dry, suffers from frequent droughts 
Coastal Plains: narrow, between the coast and the Ghats
Supports agriculture and fishing 
Seafarers traded across the Indian Ocean from here. 
Climate: India is tropical, with a monsoon season
Monsoon: seasonal rain (wind)
Moist air blows in from the sea meets the landmass and cools off. 
It rains from June to September 25 to 100 inches 
Temperatures cool off, crops spring to life 
Indus River Valley Civilization
Spend Some time exploring this link to The Indus River Valley Civilization
Discovered in 1921 AD 
The two main cities are Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which were larger than any Mesopotamian City. 
Language: written, undecipherable 
Excavation: difficult, expensive, and frequently flooded 
Cities: the product of central planning 
Examples: wide straight streets, evenly divided blocks, residential and public areas, and the same size bricks used in construction for 1,000 years. There were granaries, shops and underground sewers. Knowledge of geometry and surveying was neccesary.
Government: Priest King. Rule was strict, with standard weights and measures 
Religion: Polytheistic, Mother earth goddess, three-faced god. 
Economy: agricultural. With extensive irrigation, dams, and levees. Crops grown: wheat, barley, melons, dates 
Fertile land created food surpluses, which supported the large cities. 
Merchant class lived in the cities, these merchants traded with Mesopotamia.

Map of the Indus River Valley Civilization
Indus River Valley civilization begins to decline before it is struck with a catastrophe.
The Aryans
Invade the Indus River valley @ 1,500 BC.
The Aryans were fierce, nomadic, herders. The Aryans were Indo-Europeans from between the Caspian and Aral Seas. They used horses and superior weapons. The Indus River valley civilization was no match.
The Aryans were loosely organized into tribes. (Tribe: a group of related families who recognize a common ancestor, speak the same language, and share common traditions and beliefs.)
The chief of an Aryan tribe was the Rajah, who was the leader in war.
Between 1,500-1,000 BC the Aryans captured the Northern Plains and settled into villages. Their chief enemy was the Dravidians. The Aryans drove the Dravidians south. 
Between 1,000-700 BC local Rajahs fought among themselves for power. 
By 700 BC they are building large cities and encouraging trade. 
It took 800 years for civilization to return to India. 
Aryan Beliefs
The first sacred book of the Aryans is The Vedas. Which were written between 1,500-1,000 BC.
Contained: sacred hymns, prayers, and magic spells. 
This book was used by priests. 
Aryans were polytheistic, worshipping gods of nature. They had a sky god, a thunder god, sun god, fire god, etc. 
The chief god was Indra. Indra was a warrior god who reflected the optimistic and confident welt-anschaung of the Aryans. 
The Upanishads is the second sacred book of the Aryans.
The Upanishads were written between 800-600 BC. Reincarnation and the belief in a single, unifying force of the universe are the spiritual ideas in this book. Reincarnation is the belief in the rebirth of the soul into another body after death. 
Epic Literature: Poems of gods and warriors and civil wars, mixing
fact with fiction, weaving in religious themes.
The two books are the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata is over 100,000 lines long.
The written language of the Aryans is Sanskrit (still the religious language of India). This language is related to many European languages.
Life in an Aryan village
A Rajah would rule several villages. A headman would rule a single village. 
Economy: farming and herding. Cattle was the measure of wealth, The more cows someone had, the wealthier they were. Cattle were used for food, plowing, and transportation. 
Family life: extended families, fathers arranged marriages for children. Women had a subordinate role. 
The Caste System:
Brahmans: Priests

Kshatriyas: Warriors

Vaisyas: Landowners and merchants

Sudras: Peasants and servants 
Outside of the Caste system lived the Hariman, also known as the untouchables.
These castes were rigid and determined by birth. Wealth and achievement were not factors only birth.
The Religions of Ancient India
Hinduism
There is no founder of Hinduism; it arises from the traditions of the Aryans and the Indus River valley.
The sacred books are the Vedas and the Upanishads.
Brahma is the single, unifying force that connects all things in the universe. Nothing exists that is not a part of Brahma. Everything that exists is a part of Brahma. Each of the thousands of gods the Hindus believe in represents a different aspect of Brahma.
The three main gods are: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer.
These gods are part of the Cycle of the Cosmos:
Brahma creates the world, Vishnu preserves the world, which becomes corrupt, Shiva destroys the world, out of the destruction Brahma creates the world, Vishnu preserves the world, which becomes corrupt, Shiva destroys the world, out of the destruction Brahma creates the world, Vishnu preserves the world, which becomes corrupt, Shiva destroys the world, out of the destruction Brahma creates the world, Vishnu preserves the world, which becomes corrupt, Shiva destroys the world, out of the destruction Brahma creates the world, Vishnu preserves the world, which becomes corrupt, Shiva destroys the world , out of the destruction Brahma creates the world, Vishnu preserves the world, which becomes corrupt, Shiva destroys the world, out of the destruction Brahma creates the world, Vishnu preserves the world, which becomes corrupt, Shiva destroys the world , out of the destruction Brahma creates the world, Vishnu preserves the world, which becomes corrupt, Shiva destroys the world , out of the destruction ����
Every living creature has a part of the universal soul, Atman. The individual is separated from the universal soul. The pursuit of imperfect pleasures such as; material wealth, personal pleasures, etc. keep the individual soul apart.
The goal of a Hindu is to have their soul reunited with their universal soul. This takes many, many lifetimes.
During each life an individual can move closer of further form their goal of oneness with the Atman.
The Law of Karma: actions in a person's life determine your fate in the next life. This is what determines your caste. The higher the caste the closer to the goal. The lower the caste the further from the goal. Good Karma is achieved by performing your Dharma.
Dharma is the duties and obligations of your caste. Each caste has a set of rules to live by; they are called the Dharma.
Buddhism
Founded by Siddhartha Gautama 
Born about 563 BC in the Kshatriya caste. 
He was a prince who lived a life of luxury, never leaving the palace. 
At 29 he leaves the palace for the first time; he is shocked by what he sees. 
He sees an old decrepit man, a sick and dying man and a corpse. This leads him to ask the question, "Why is there misery and sorrow in the world, why is there human suffering?" 
Leaves his family and abandons the life of luxury. He chooses the rags of the beggar. 
Studies the Hindu texts and asks all the so-called wise men. 
Becomes an aesthetic to cleanse his body and clear his mind. 
But still he cannot find the answer to his question. 
He wanders about India for the next six years, until one day while sitting at the bank of a river leaning against a tree meditating; he becomes the enlightened one, the Buddha. The Buddha then spent his life teaching others what he had learned. He organized communities of monks to teach others what he had learned.
He died in 483 BC while eating spoiled food.
"Decay is inherent in all things."
Buddhist teachings:
The Four Noble Truths
Suffering and misery are universal

Cause of suffering is desire (thirst)

To end suffering, overcome desire

To escape suffering, follow the Middle Way 
The Middle Way is the Eightfold Path of Knowledge
This can be summed up in these two ideas: virtuous conduct and compassion for all living things. 
The goal of a Buddhist is to reach Nirvana. Nirvana is the condition of wanting nothing.
Buddhism is absorbed by Hinduism in India. It will spread to Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan.
Theraveda Buddhism follows the original teachings of the Buddha.
Mahayana Buddhism worships the Buddha as a god. There are Boddhisatvas, who, having reached enlightenment return to guide others. Can be found in Korea, China, and Tibet.
Great Empires of India
600-321 BC Magadha (Aryans) Empire in northeast India. 
512 BC Persians (Darius) controls the Indus River Valley. 
321 BC Chandragupta Maurya establishes the Maurya Empire (321-183 BC). Stretched from Kalinga to the Hindu Kush Mountains. 
Capital: Patilaputra 
Surrounded by a moat and walls with 570 towers. 
The Maurya emperor lived in a huge wooden palace, where he was attended to by servants. 
The huge empire was divided into provinces, which were ruled by governors. 
The Maurya Empire was run like a police state. There were spies who informed the Emperor of everything that was occurring in the Empire.
This was a period of road building and expanding trade.
Asoka (269-232 BC) considered the greatest Emperor of the Maurya Dynasty.
During his reign the province of Kalinga revolted. This revolt was crushed by his army, with over 100,000 killed. After the revolt was over, Asoka traveled to the province. When he saw the death and destruction he renounced violence and converted to Buddhism. He relaxes the harsh justice of earlier rulers. He has government official teach the importance of: good works, religious toleration, and Ahimsa, the philosophy of non-violence. MLK
Asoka sent missionaries, spreading Buddhism throughout India. 
After the death of Asoka civil war shatters the unity of the Maurya Empire. 
From 180 BC to 300 AD many small kingdoms will rise and fall in India. 
The Bactrian Greeks (250-150 BC)
Remnants of Alexander's army. Demetrius pushed into northwest India from the Hindu Kush mountains. The Greeks were eventually absorbed by India.
The Kushans (78-227 AD)
Invade northwest India @ 30BC their kingdom is established in 78 AD. King Kanishka was a convert to Buddhism. He established the Council of 500 Monks to regulate Mahayana Buddhist teachings.
200-300 AD was a time of turmoil and war, many warring states in India.
The Gupta Empire
320 AD Chandra Gupta I unites the warring states through marriage, diplomacy and warfare. He establishes the Gupta Empire (320-467 AD). This empire stretched across the northern plains. A time of peace and prosperity. The Iron Pillar of Delhi was made at this time.
450 AD India is invaded by the Huns from central Asia. The civilization is wrecked and Indian unity will be dealt a deathblow for the next 1,000 years.

How to write a D.B.Q. Essay (Document Based Question)

How to write a D.B.Q. Essay (Document Based Question Essay)

There are three basic parts to a good D.B.Q. Essay.
1.  Introduction
2.  Body (several paragraphs answering the questions and mentioning the documents)
3.  Conclusion (brief summary of your essay and re-writing the introduction as a conclusion)

Use the "historical context" or Introduction as your introduction to the essay
Carefully read the "task", these are the questions you are going to answer
Compare/Contrast: means to show the differences and similarities between examples
Discuss: means to "talk" or tell about the answer
Describe: means to explain the answer in detail

Your D.B.Q. Essay should have the following parts:

Introduction  (Using the historical context to introduce your essay)
One paragraph MINIMUM answering each part of the task, (usually three (3) paragraphs minimum)
Remember that you MUST mention the documents in your essay using at least half of the documents in your answer...more is better. Example: "As mentioned in document 3, the Nile River played an important role in the development of Ancient Egypt...etc."
Separate your paragraphs with transition words like; "another", "finally", "additionally", etc.
Conclusion  (Briefly summarize your essay in short sentences first, than re-write the introduction with a transition word in front of it...example; Finally, most early civilizations developed along river valleys due to their basic need for a source of water.....etc.)

Documents:

On the lines given for you to answer the document questions, you should always put your answer in a full sentence.  Never skip a document question because these are usually very simple questions that just measure your ability to look at a graph, chart, quote, reading, etc....and be able to briefly answer a short question about it.  (Easy points!)

When using the documents to write your essay, you can often explain your answer by inserting the sentences you wrote under the documents into your essay.

Thematic Essay:

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