Chapter 1: Introduction to Human Body
1. Anatomy-study of structures
2. Physiology-study of function
3. division of labor and specialization occurs
a. bad-one thing can't do job of another
b. good- one thing does it better than other
4. Levels of Organization
1. atom
2. chemicals (molecules)-hydroxyapatite(bones
made of), H20, and protein
3. cell
4. tissue
5. organ
6. system
7. organism
5. life processes
1. metabolism-all processes with food &
energy
1. catabolism-tearing
down
2. anabolism-building
2. responsiveness-ability to detect and respond
to internal & external stimulus
3. movement-whole, part, cell
4. growth-size, complexity
5. differentiation-division of labor, cell
specialization
6. reproduction-maintaining species
6. homeostasis-dinamic equilibrium
1. altering factors
1. disease/infection
5. O2/altitude
2. exertion
6. electrolyte imbalance
3. temp H/C
7. stress
4. poison
2. nervous & endocrine system affect homestasis
7. Feedback Systems (Loops)
1. 3 parts
1. control center
(brain)-sets parameters, checks, alters conditions
2. receptors-recieve
stimuli & tells brain when parameters have changed
3. effectors-recieve
stimuli from control center, help return to normal
2. Negative Feedback(good)-return deviations
from norm to original
stimulus->receptors
send input->control center sends output->effectors->response
3. Positive Feedback(bad)-increases deviation
from norm (bad->worse)
1. only positive is
childbirth
8. Disease and Homestasis
1. localized or systematic
9. Planes-imaginary surfaces to cut the body into
used to explain where things are & relations to other things
1. sagital-divides into right & left unequal
planes
2. midsagital-divides into equal right&
left planes
3. transverse-superior and inferior planes
4. frontal-ventral & dorsal planes
5. oblique-angular planes
10. Body Cavities
1. dorsal-brain and spinal cord
2. ventral
1. thoracic-2 pleural
cavities(containing lungs), mediastinum(heart), thymus gland,
great vessels (aorta, veina cava)
2. abdominopelvic
1. abdominal-liver,gallbladder,stomach,spleen,pancreas,small intestine,part
large
2. pelvic-urinary bladder, internal reproductive, part of large intestine
Chapter 3:The Cellular Level of Organization
Cell-cell(plasma) membrane, cytosol, organelles, inclusions
cell membrane-50% protein, 50%lipid
50%lipid:75% phosophlipid->amphapathic,
bilayer
outside->(head),polar,hydrophilic (attracts H20)
inside->(tail), non-polar, hydrophobic (fears H20)
5% glycolipid-cell glue (holds together), cell communication
20% cholesterol-white substance, cottage cheese consistency
LDL-low density lipoprotein-bad 1:3 ration
HDL-high density lipoprotien-good 3:1 ratio
adds strength, but reduces flexibility of plasma membrane
50%protein:integral protein(go through
plasma membrane)
1. produces channels-help substances enter & exit membrane
2. transporters-carry things through membrane
3. receptor sites-get things to attatch to membrane
1.neurotransmiters-causes body to do something
2.hormones-regulate body functions
3.nutrients
peripheral proteins-enymes (mostly all)->majority of protein->catalysts
Electrochemical Gradient:electrical & chemical
diff inside & outside cell
extracellular fluid--Na+ cation, Cl- anion
cytosol-K+ cation, (PO4)-3 anion for ATP, Neg Amino acids
voltage difference inside & outside of cell=more neg outside, pos inside
permeable-anything can pass through
semi-permeable-choose what goes in & out (cell)
passive processes-no outside energy is utilized
diffusion-higher to lower concentration, stops equilibrium
osmosis-diffusion of H20 through plasma membrane
active processes-energy utlized
regulate movement-size, must be
lipid soluble, transporters, channels, charge
Tonicity: solute-usually solid
that dissolves in H2O
solvent-usually liquid that dissolves solute
isotonic-concentration H2O & ions equal in & out of cell (no net
movement)
hypotonic-lower solute, more solvent, more moving in (bursts)
hypertonic-higher solute, lower solvent(H2O), more moving out (shrinks)
Filtration: ex. Kidney-waste eliminated, useful
separated out & recycled
1.by gravity-heavy
parts settle out
2. by hydrostatic
pressure-H2O exerts pressure, push out of blood into kidney
Facilitated Diffusion: using transporter to carry
through plama membrane
if too big, lipid
insoluable, glucose (most important) transported by integral proteins
Active Process:requires energy(ATP) to get
substance through plasma membrane
primary active process:sodium
pump-eliminates sodium, keep potassium in
secondary active process:1.symport-Na
& something else going in same direction (in)
2.antiport-Na in draws Ca out (bad-need calcium)
***Clinical Application:digitalis-loxin, heart failure
patients, decreases NA gradient,
keeps in Ca,increases
force of heart beat, extracted from Fox-Glove plant (N.Amer)
Bulk Transport:get large things into cell
Exocytosis-carrying stuff out->vessicle
Endocytosis-carrying stuff in: 1.phagocytosis-pseudopods,
invagination(infolding)
2.pinocytosis-forms depression, collapses in around it
***Clinical Application:liposomes-phospholipid sac
containing drugs, releases slowly
balanced level in
blood, evens tocicity, pataches, aerosols, creams
Cytosol:sol (liqid)->gel (viscous-thicker)
emulsion-supension of liquid in liquid
colloid-suspension of solid in liquid
cell=colloidal emulsion-solids & liquids
in liquid (H2O)->universal solvent
75-90%- H2O
10-25%-lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, inorganics
some H2O soluable->fundamental-Glucose,
Amino Acids
nonH2O soluable->polysaccrides,complex
carbohydrates,protein,lipid,glycogen(liver)
cellular respiration-"E"-ATP,process of making
glucose into ATP
glycolisis, Kreb's
Cycle, H+ transport/cytochrom system(most ATP)=55%efficient
Organelles:
prokaryotic-no organized nucleus,organelles
eukaryotic-have membrane bound organelles, structures
doing specific things,efficient
nucleus-brain of cell, control center,responsible
for production of everything, cell
does not exist otherwise, covered by nuclear envelope (membrane), has nuclear
pores(permits substances &mRNA to enter/exit), holds nucleolus,chromosomes
nucleolus-very denst protein, DNA & RNA, producese
ribosomes,rRNA
**tRNAtranslation, mRNA=transcription, rRNA=bind
mRNA to ribosome**
chromosome-thread like hereditory carrying bodies
(3 ft DNA), made of chromatin
chromatin-DNA + protein (histone-causes double helix
shape)
chromatid- 1/2 chromosome
centromere-holds chromatids together
ribosome-protein factory, works in groups(polysomes-makes
more), produced in nucleolus
1.free ribosomes-not
attatched to ER, intracellular proteins produced
2.ER ribosomes-produces
intercellular proteins, and those used by plasma membrane
endoplasmic reticulum-"highways sytem," membrane
bound channels (cisterns)
1. rough ER-ribosomes
attatched
2. smooth ER-produces
steroids, phospholipids, fatty acids, detoxifies ethanol,
pesticides, carcinogens
Gogi Complex(Body,Apparatus)-in animal cells only,
made of cisterns, sorts,packages,and
delivers proteins
& lipids to plasma membrane packaged in vessicles
Lysosomes-suicide sac, membrane bound, produce enzymes(degrade
protein),
autophagy-recycling, nutrients reused
**Clinical Application-Autolysis-programmed destruction
of cells**
peroxisomes-contain enzymes to break down proteins,
oxidizer-removes hydogen by
combining & turning
into water which is expelled,breakls down-formic acid(fire ants),
alcohol, phenol, formaldehyde,
blood toxins
mitochondria-powerhouse of cell,forms energy(ATP),folds-cristae(increase
surface area)
cytoskeleton-made of microfilaments,microtubules,intermediate
filaments
microfilaments-made of actin (thin),
myosin (thick)<-protein, psuedopods, contract..
microtubules-made of tubulin-protein,
thin cylinders, form parts of cell
cillia,spindle fibers
intermediate fibers-made of protein,
helps give cell shape
centrisome-dense body close to nucleus, contains
centrioles(54 filaments)
centriole-inside centrisome(27
filaments), produces miotic apparatus
Cell Inclusion:
1. no membrane
2. mostly organic
3. some have definate shape
ex. melanin-pigment in skin, protects chromosomes
from UV light (mutagen)melanocytes
ex. glycogen-polysacchride, store energy,
stored in liver,skeletel muscle, usterus, vagina
ex. triclycerides-color&consistency of
corn syrup, combines with fatty acids
Gene Action:
DNA-double helix of nitrogenous bases encoding
genetic information
RNA polymerase-catalyzes transcription (mRNA)
mRNA-copy made by transcription,carries opp
nucleotides, goes to ribosomes
sense strand-strand serving as mRNA templete
nonsense strand-not transcribed, complement
to sense strand
intron-part of DNA not coding for protein,
located between exons
exons-regions of DNA coding for protein
processed mRNA-nRNA which has introns removed
& exons rejoined
transcription- process of genetic info of
DNA copied to strand of mRNA
nuclear pore-hole in nuclear membrane through
which mRNA leaves
ribosome-protein factory of cell w/two subunits
polysome/polyribsome-line of ribosome funtion
together as a unit
rRNA-sythesized by DNA, makes up ribosome
w/ribosomal protein
complimentary-DNA comp to mRNA comp to tRNA
(DNA & mRNA same-uracil)
codon-3 nucleotides, specifies amino acid
tRNA-binds to one of 20 amino acids, brings
it to ribosomes
start codon-sequence where translation will
begin
stop codon-sequence where translation will
end
translation-process where nucleotide sequence
info froom mRNA specifies amino acids
peptide bond-bond between two amino acids
in protein
polypeptide chain/protein-chain of amino acid
Cell Division:
Interphase-no active cell division occuring
G1-cell grows to maturity
S-DNA replication
occurs (chromosomes copy)
G2-organelles increase
in number
Mitosis-ongoing process from birth to death,
cell division, binary fission
prophase-nuclear membrane
disappears,nucleolus disappears, cytoplasm goes from sol
to gel, mytotic apparatus forms(spindle fibers, aster, traction fibers)
centriole splits-halves go to poles, chromosome become short,fat,distinct
metaphase-chromosomes
lined up on equator, centromere (hook) splits
anaphase-spindle fibers
shorten pulling chromosomes to polls
telophase-division
of cytoplasm(cytokinesis), animal cell starts pinching off(clevage
furrow), rest is opposite of prophase
Meiosis (Gametogensis):
female:oogenesis,
formation of ovum(egg)
1.generalized ovarian cell (2N)-oogonial cell
2.undergoes replication(4N)-primary oocyte
3.divides into 2 (nuclear division=,cytoplasm not)-1st polar body,secondary
oocyte
4.secondary oocyte divides into 2 (nuc =,cyt not)-2nd polar body, ootid
5.ootid matures into ovum (produces coverings around self)
male:spermatogenesis,
formation of sperm
1.generalized testis cell (2N)-spermatagonial cell
2.undergoes replication(4N)-primary spermatocyte
3.divides into 2 (nuclear division=,cytoplasm =)-secondary spermatocytes
4.secondary spermatocyte divides into 2 (nuc =,cyt =)-spermatid
5.spermatid matures into sperm
acromsome-contains enzymes, penetrates egg covering
head-chromosomes
neck-contains cytoplasm for energy
tail-propel through female reproductive tract
Abnormal Cell Division:
malignant tumor-spreads
beign tumor-stays where it is
tumor caused by hyperplasia-excessively rapid
cell division
metastasis-little bits of tumor break off
and spread
causes of it: carcinogens-chemical/environmental
agents
Chapter 4: Tissues
Tissue-group of cells with similar function
Histology-study of tissues
Biopsy-little tissue removed, sent to pathologist to see what
was wrong
Three Embryionic Layers-ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm->make all of tissues
Four Types of Tissues:
1.) Epithelial Tissue-lines cavities, covers outside & organs,
produces glands
2.) Connective Tissue-connects, binds, covers, protects (ex.
tendon, skeleton, fat)
3.) Muscle Tissue-work,produces force,movement(ex.digestive
system,pupil dilate)
1.)smooth 2.)skeletal 3.)cardiac
4.) Nervous Tissue-recieve, interpret, and send impulses
Extracellular Fluid-any body fluid outside of cell
1.) interstitial fluid-between Plasma Membranes
of cells
2.) plasma-majority of extracellular fluid,
lquid portion of blood
Cell Junctions: how one cell joins another cell (plasma membranes)
1.) tight junctions-little or no space betweem
plasma membranes, little or no leakage
2.) anchoring juctions-
a.) adherens junctions-microfilaments of cytoskeleton-sew cells together
b.) desmosomes-spot welds-hold cells together at selective spots (2 sides)
c.) hemidesmosomes-same as desmosome but 1 side of cell
3.) communicating junctions-almost entirely
nervous tissue
a.) space between nerves--gaps-->gap junctions
b.) tibes between spaces made of protein
c.) chemical bridges gap-->broken down stops gap bridge
Epithelial Tissue: tight junctions, cells tightly packed together,
forms sheets, avascular-no
blood vessels, two sides: apical (to outside),
basal (toward connective tissue underneath)
rich in nerve, originates from all three germ
layers, high regeneration rate
Covering and Lining Epithelium:
Arrangements:
1.) simple: once cell thick, not very strong, can't take abuse,
function-filtration & absorbtion (ex. kidney & intestine)
2.) stratified: many cells thick, can take abuse (ex. skin)
3.) psuedostratified: appears stratified, only one cell thick because some
cells
haven't migrated to surface giving stratified appearance
Cell Shapes:
1.) squamous-flat, scally-like cells
2.) cuboidal- L=W (ex. liver cells)
3.) columnar- L>W (ex. stomach lining)
4.) transitional- changes shape
Classification of
Cell Types:
1.) simple a.) squamous- ex. inner lining of heart(endocarditis), endothelium-
(blood vessel,capillaries,lymphatic vessel),mesothelium,serous membrane
1.) simple b.) cuboidal-secretive(enzyme,persperation,mucus),absorbtion(ex.intest)
1.) simple c.) columnar- 1.)nonciliated-no cillia(ex.stomach->anus,gallblader)
2.)cilliated-cillia (ex.respritory tract,central canal-spinal,fallopian
tubules)
1.) stratified a.) squamous- rapid regeneration(basal side), cells die
& dry out
as moving outward->producing keratin(protective,water proof)
1.) keratinized-contain more keratin (ex.skin)
2.) nonkeratinized-(ex. tongue, epiglottis, mouth, vagina)
2.) stratified b.) cuboidal-uncommon(ex.male urethra,sweat glands,ducts
glands)
2.) stratified c.) columnar-rare,secretive&protective(ex.male urethra,ducts
of
glands, lines anal area, conjuctiva-covering of whites of eye)
2.) stratified d.) transitional- two shapes 1.)cuboidal-relaxed
2.)squamous-stretched (ex. urinary bladder)
3.) pseudostratified-(ex. male urethra,eustachian tube-ear pressure equalizer)
Glandular Epithelium: one or many cells
Types:
1.) exocrine-have ducts(ex.sweat gland,gobblet cell,oil gland,milk gland,
digestive enzyme, milk gland, ear wax)
2.) endocrine-ductless gland(ex.pitutary,thyroid,thymus,pineal,adrenal,pancreas)
Functional Classification
of Exocrine Glands:
1.) holocrine gland-secretions are released from a cell when the cell dies
(ex.oil)
2.) merocrine gland-secretions released in vesicle w/cell not damaged (ex.salivary)
3.) apocrine glands-secretions trapped in cell part that pinches off and
is
released, cell rebuilds itself, not killed (ex.mammary gland)
Matrix:
Ground Substances: found between cells of
connective tissues, made of protein
and polysaccride(chemicals:proteoglycan,glycoamin oglyan)
Examples:
1. Hyaluronic Acid-slippery,viscous
substance, helps bind cells together, acts as
joint lubricant, helps to maintain shaoe of eyeball,help WBC go to infection
2. Chondroitin Sulfate-found
to rebuild cartilage,found in cartilage,bone,skin,BV,
jelly-like, not viscous, supportive & causes cells to adhere
3. Dermatin Sulfate-found
in skin,tendons,Blood Vessels, heart valves
4. Keratin Sulfate-found
in bone cartilage, cornea
Connective Tissue: cells rarely tough, embedded in matrix, rich
in nerves&blood cells
except cartilage, never on free surfaces->inside or covering something
except joint ends, originates from embryonic mesoderm
***Suffix-"Blast"-yound cell building cell(making or rebuilding)
"Cyte"-old cell-maintain tissue (no building going on)
Connective Tissue Types:
1. fibroblasts-cells
that produce the matrix
2. macrophages-(histiocytes)
are produced from monocytes (type of WBC)
3. adipocytes-cells
that store adipose tissue or fat
4. plasma cells-small
produced from "B" lymphocytes, produce immunity to diseases
produces antibodies,most found in GI tract & brest milk
5. leucocytes-WBC->engulf(phagocytosis)
6. mast cells- found
in White Blood Cells, produce histamines(function:vasodilators
when infection or dilate blood vessels to get more blood to infected area
produce very poor heparin-anticoagulent asprin
Embryonic Connective Tissue: arises early
in life
zygote->embryo (0-2mths)->fetus
(3mths-birth)
1. mesenchyme-embryonic
connective tissue found only in embryo stage
2. Wharton's Jelly-star
shaped cells,mucus connective tissue-persistant through life
Mature Connective Tissue:
1.Loose Connective
Tissue:lots of cells, contains fibers forming loose network
a.)Areolar-most common,contains all cell types(6 types),contains all fiber
types
(3 kinds), and 4of6 ground substances, viscous CT because of it medicine
doesn' get dispersed easily within it or through it
**hyaluronidase-enzymes makes viscous CT watery to allow substance
to pass easily,
produced by white
blood cells, sperm**
**Marfan's Disease-overproduction of CT, usually tall,overly
long arms,fingers,toes, lower
body out of proportion
in length w/torso, weak aorta & heart valves**
b.) Adipose tissue-stores energy,mechanical protection,insulation,support
1.)white-found in adults,1 vacuole in adipocyte(ex.between shoulder blades,
mediastinum area,around kidney)
2.)brown-infants,lots of small vacuoles, get a lot of energy a lot quicker,
lots of blood vessels, lot of mitochondria, chytochrome pigments,
thermoregulation (heat regulation)
c.)reticular CT-connects smooth muscle cells together, forms organ skeleton
2. Dense Connective
Tissue:fewer cells,better defined patterns (better organized)
a.) regular-lots of parallel fibers, provide great unidirectional strength
(ex.tendons,ligaments,aponeurosis,attatches two muscles together)
b.) irregular-collagen fibers are not as well defined as in regular, fibers
are
multidirectional (ex. skin, heart valves, peristium, perichondrium)
c.) elastic-contains lots of elastic fibers, multibranched, expand &
contract in
multiple directions for long periods of time (ex.repritory syst,circulatory
sys)
3. Cartilage: able
to take stress, well defined network of collagen fibers
interspersed w/elastic fibers(in Chondroitin Sulfate), very little made
after reaching childhood, chrondroblasts-produce matrix(trapped in
lacuna-spaces in matrix) become chondrocytes(mature-maintance),
no nerves or blood vessels except in perichondrium(outer cover)
types: a.)hyaline-most common,blueish-white,gives
some support, main function-flexible
(ex.bone ends,connects ribs to sternum,nose,trachii,bronhii,embr.skel)
b.)fibrocartilage-toughest,support,fuses things together (ex.intervertebral
disks,
pubis symphysis, medial & lateral menisci)
c.)elastic-contains elastic fibers(ex.ustachian tube,epiglotis,pinna of
ear)
growth:a.)interstitial-occurs in children&adolescents,begins
at inside,works outward
b.)appositional-occurs under perichrondrium(on outside), occurs in adults
4. Bone Tissue: rigid,made
of 2 mineral salts CaCO3 & Ca3(PO4)2
types:a.)dense/compact bone-made of
units(haversian/osteion), made of lamella
(concentric circles of osteon-rings of mature bone), little spaces
where cells are-lucunae,canaliculi-lateral channels,(ex. long bones)
b.)spongy/cancellous-doesn't have osteons,looks like swiss cheese(lots
of holes),
most blood cells formed, no bone chamber w/marrow, trabeculae-
lace work(small spaces-red marrow)(ex.ends of long bone,flatbones)
5. Blood(Vascular
Tissue)
a.) plasma-liquid part of blood
b.) erythrocytes-RBC,manufactured in bone marrow(have nucleus),exit(no
nucleus)
does not stain, looks like doughnut from top,barbell from side
c.) leucocytes-WBC, 5 types(different by shape of nucleus&cell contents)
lot less than red
d.) thrombocytes-platelets, smallest of all blood cells, function-to clot
blood
Membranes:
Epithelial Membranes:made of epithelial tissue
& underlying connective tissue
1. mucus membrane-line
parts of body that open to outside world, function-protect
from pathogens, tight junctions, (ex.respri,digest,reproduc,urinary syst)
2. serous membrane-lines
cavities not opening to outside world,covers organs,
produces serous fluid(lubricate-reduce friction of moving things)
a.) parietal-lines inner cavities
b.) visceral-covers organs
3. synovial membrane-lines
high stress joints, produces synovial fluid-reduces friction
produced in Bursae sacs,(ex.fingers,toes,shoulder)
Muscle Tissue:
1. skeletal(striated,voluntary)-large
multinucleated cells, controled, parallel fibers
2. smooth(involuntary)-no
concious control,cells spindle shaped,1 nucleus,parallel fib
3. cardiac(striated
involuntary)-netwok of fibers, sideways attatchment of cells by
intercalcated disks,autorhythmic-out of concious control, expand all direc
Nervous Tissue:
1. nerve cells->neurons,
cell body-contains nucleus,dendrites-branched,axon-no bran
2. function-receive,
send, process stimulus
3. other nerve cell-> neuroglia
(produce chemicals-neurotransmiters)
Tissue Repair:
1. stem cells-undifferentiated
cells that can become anything in anybody
2. scab-dead cells,
fibrinogen
3. scar tissue-not
same as tissue it replaced, produced by fibrosis,
adhesions-build up of abnormal scar tissue
Vitamins: watersoluble (Vitamin C), oil soluable (Vitamin E)
Chapter 5: Integumentary System (ex. skin,nails,hair,senasation,sweat
glands)
A. Skin Colors tell things about Health
1. red-excessive heat,alcohol,emotions,allergies,carbon
monoxide
2. ashen(pale)-shock,frostbite,anemia
3. yellow-jaundice
B. Functions of Skin
1. thermal regulation (hot-perspire)
2. excretion (eliminate excess)
3. protection from UV rays, mechanical protection
4. sensation
5. works as part of immune system
6. 8-10% of blood stored
7. production of vitamin D (1 hr sunlight
per week)
C. Amount of Skin
1. 4.5-5 kilos of skin(11lbs)
2. 2 sq meters of skin
3. .5-4mm thick
D. 3 parts of skin
1. epidermis
2. dermis
3. subcutaneus layer(superficial fascia,hypodermis)-made
of areolar CT, fat
E. Epidermis
1. stratified squamous epithlium
2. four types of cells
a. keratinized-90%,
produce keratin(waterproof,protective substance), have a lot of
desmosomes(tightly attatch cells to each other)
b. melanocytes-8%,
produce melanin (transfered to keratinocytes for storage and
use-protect DNA from UV rays)
c. Langerhans cell-produced
in bone marrow,migrate to skin,help Tcells w/immunity
d. Merkelcell-contain
merkel disks, responsible for sensation
3. callus-thickening of dead epidermis, originate
from areas of stress & friction
4. 5 layers of epidermis
a. stratum basale-base
layer,inner most,produces all new growth,one cell thick,
priduces some inward growth(ex.sweat gland,oil gland,hair)
looks cuboidal or columnar
b. stratum spinosum-multisided
appearance, 8-10 layers, spiny, very tightly packed
starting to collect melanin
c. stratum granulosum-
3-5 layers thick, cell starting to die(structures breakdown)
keratohyalan produced(prescursor to keratin)
d. stratum lucidum-
3-5 cell layers thick, cells are clear,flat,dead,only in areas
w/padding (ex. palms & soles)
e. stratum corneum-25-30
cells thick, cells completely dead, shed continually,
replaced by cells underneath, contain lots of keratin,melanin
5. keratinization-production of keratin increases
as cells move outward
6. Epidermal Growth Factor(EGF)-skin growth
hormone
F. Dermis-2nd(middle)layer, lot of collagen&elastic fibers,
3 types of cells(fibroblasts,
macrophages, adipocytes), thicker on soles&palms, thinnest on eyelids,penis
scrotum, rest uniform&equal, rich in blood vessels,nerves,glands,hair
follicles,
thicker on dorsal than ventral, two regions
1.papilary region-outermost region,areolar
CT,dermail papillae(ridges on surface), free
nerve endings,corpuscles of touch-sensative to touch
2.reticular region-inner region,much thicker,dense
irregular CT,collagen&elastic fibers,
adapost tissure,sweat glands ducts,oil glands,hair follicles,nerves,temp
sensation
3.striae-stretch marks,extend to far...tear
in dermis
**extensability-ability to stretch
**elasticity-ability to stretch & return
G. Hypodermis(Superficial fascia,subcutaneous layer)-attatch
dermis to muscle/bone,
Pacinian corpuscles-touch receptors
H. Skin Color-
1. melanin-produced by melanocyte,concentrated
in melanosome,found in mucus linings,
areola,penis,face,extremities, amino acid--tyrosine+enzyme--tyrosinase(amt
determines color),albino-no tyrosinase produced by body,freckles-clusters
of
melanin filled cells,liver spots-freckles on hands(age), vitiligo-no pigment
on part
of body, cells in that area damaged easily by UV rays
2. carotene-yellow,orange pigment,precursor
to vitamin A(vision),asians-lot in strat corne
3. hemoglobin-red pigment,brought to surface
during blush,1 atom or iron-causes color,
I. Epidermal Ridges-fingers,palms,toes,soles,ridges have holes
for sweat glands,finger prints
J. Hair-pilli,helps hermoregulation,protects from UV rays, sensative,
lose 70-100 a day,
replaced-slowed by age,chemotherapy treatments,diet deficiancies,blood
loss,
surgery,stress, made of keratinized cells,dead,distinctive,has DNA
1. anatomy of hair--
a. shaft-above skin
root-below skin
b. layers-medulla-inner
layer, 2-3 rows polyhedral cells,airspaces contain pigments
cortex-middle layer,made of elongated cells,contains pigments
cuticle-ouside, 1 cell thick, lots of keratin, cells overlap going upward
c. follicle-contains
two layers--external root sheat(epidermal-strat basale), internal
root sheat(cellular, between external root sheat and hair)
d. bulb-two parts--papillae
of hair(blood vessels,melanocytes,areolarCT), matrix-
(right super fiscial, germinal tissue-new growth)
e. hair root plexus-nerve
network
f. arrector pilli
muscle-smooth,involuntary muscles,help hair stand erect
2. Color of Hair
a. melanin-found in
medula & cortex (amt determines color)
b. gray-less melanin
(tyrosinase-age lowers production)
c. white-no pigment(only
air in spaces)
d. red/blond-modified
melanin w/more iron & sulfur
K. Glands-3 types
1. subaceous(oil)gland-connect to hair follicles,some
release to skin,lips,eyelids,glans
penis,labia menora, none on palms,soles, size varies-small(extremities,trunk)
large(face,neck,brests,upper chest),sebum-oil secretion produced(contains
fat,
cholestorol,protein,inorganic salts),pimples/boils/blackheads-blocked glands
2.suderiferous(sweat)gland-empty on skin surface,two
kinds--eccrine(most common,
found everywhere except eardrum,glans penis,glans scultorus,labia menora,
most
on soles&palms), apocrine(found in pubic region,under armpit,areola
surrounding
nipple, more viscous sweat produced in times of stress/sexual excitement)
sweat-water,urea,uric acid,lactic acid,NaCl,salts,amino acids,ammonia,sugar
3. Ceruminous gland-waxy secretion cerumin(oils&waxes),to
protect from pathogens,
found on entire surface of external auditory meatus(bony channel)
L. Nails-made out of highly keratinized cells,tightly packed,color-tells
health, 1mm per wk.
1. nail body-broad expanded part of nail-majority
2. free edge-beyond fingers,toes
3. nail root-under skin, produces new growth
4. lunula-half moon(white)-no vascularization
there, thick stratum basale
5. epinychium-cuticle,made of stratum corneum,protects
newly formed nail
6. matrix-germinal tissue, produces new growth
(fingers > toes, long fing > short fing)
M. Wound Healing & Homestasis
--abrasion-1st or 2nd degree burn
-cells push upward
to relpace lost cells
--deep wound-through dermis
-cells of strat.basale
break free of basement membrane, move to wound&grow inward
to touch(contact
inhibition stops), push upward to replace lost cells, 4 steps
1. inflammatory
phase-bleed(good-platlets clot, bad-pathogens)
2. migratory
phase-clot turns to scab,lateral migration, collage produced by
unorganized fibroblasts, blood vessel repair
3. proliferative
phase-repid epidermal cell division under scab
4. maturation
phase-collagen organizes, tissues specialize, scab falls off
--scar tissue formation-Fibrosis-replacing
regular tissue w/scar tissue
-not functioning tissue,dependent
on what kind of tissue produces repair,
hypertrophic scar-remains within wound area, keloid scar-grows outside
wound
area, adhesions-tearing of scar tissue
N. Thermoregulation
--37.75 C-ideal world normal body temp
--negative feedback mechanism returns deviation
to norm
O. Aging
1.) eye-lense shape 2.)skin-fibroblasts
decrease(collagen&elastic fibers break down)
3.) melanocytes decrease-gray hair
4.)immunity drops w/age
5.) hair/nail growth rate slows
6.)less subcutaneous fat-cold easier
Chapter 6: Bone Tissue
A. Physiology of Bone-support,mineral homeostasis,protection,movement,RBC
produce,Energy
B. Anatomy of Long Bone(6)-
1. diaphysis-shaft, yellow marrow stored
2. epiphses-ends, red marrow found
3. medullary canal-hollow in center, where
marrow is found in diaphsis
4. articular cartilage-hyaline,blueish white,reduce
friction between socket & joint
5. metaphysis- between 1 & 2, osgood slaters
disese, growth plates
6. endosteum- inner lining of #5, contains
osteoproginator cells
7. perisoteum-outercovering of bone, 2 layers--fibrous(contain
blood vessels,lymphatic
vessels,nerves,dense irregularCT), osteogenic-contains blood vessels, elastic
fibers, bone cells), new bone tissue produced
C. Histology-
1. ostenoprogenator cells-originate from mesenchyme(produces
all CT), unspecialized,
become osteoblasts, found in endosteum,inner perisoteum,blood vessels channels
2. osteoblasts-form bone cells,produce collagen&bone
components,become osteocyte
3. osteocyte-mature bone, no matrix, cell
division
4. osteoclasts-produced from monocytes(WBC),
bone remodeling, reabsorb, break down
D. Matrix of Bone-made mostly of collagen and mineral salts
1.tricalcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2).(OH)2]
hydoxyapatite-most common
2.calcium carbonate CaCO3 -primary salt in
clam shell
3.magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
4.sulfates and fluorides
E. Compact(Dense) Bone-strong and supportive,hard,made of units(osteons-run
length of
bone,concentric circles of lamella), spaces between osteons(lacunae-contain
osteocytes),channels radiate from lacunae laterally in all directions(cancaliculi),
center of osteon(Haversion Canal-contain BV),BV run laterally between osteons
(Volkman's canal), compact bone regions between osteons(interstitial lamella),
only found in diaphysis(long bones-humerous,radius,fibula,tibia,femor,ulna)
F. Spony(Cancellous Bone)-contains no osteons,very porous,trabeculae-sponge,lacy
looking,
contains reb bone marrow, direct exchange of nutrient and wastes(contact
w/circulatory system,found in short bones,irregular bones,flat bones,ends
of long
G. Hemopoiesis-process of blood cell formation
H. Process of Bone Formation-(ossification, mineralization,
calcification)
mesehchyme->CT->catilage->bone
1.Intramembranous-bone will form in or on
CT membrane
ex. fontanel(soft
spot on skull),mandible,clavicle,flat bones--spongy bone
a.mesenchyme cells
become vascular->osteoproginator cells
b.osteoproginator
cells become osteoblasts(secrete/form matrix(trabeculae)
c.periosteum formed
from vascularized mesenchyme
d.mineralization(minerals
laid down making bone hard)
e.remodeling themselves
2.Endochondral-replace cartilage w/bone
a. no skeleton
b. migration of mesenchyme
cells->form mesenchyme model of bone
c. hyaline cartilage
model
mesenchyme cells vascularized->chondroblasts->catilage matrix
chondroblasts store glycogen->enzymes metabolize
hypertrophy(increase size)->burst->change pH->cause ossifiation process
interstitial growth-length(inside) appositional growth-width(outside)
primary ossicfication
center-all primary bone cell types and BV
diaphysis/epiphysis/epiphyseal
plate(growth plate-length)
articular catilage
I. Physiology of Bone Growth
1.Zone of Resting Cartilage-not dividing,closest
to epiphysis,scattered
2.Zone of Proliferating Cartilage-stacks,tightly
packed,rapidly dividing on diaphysis side
3.Zone of Hypertrophic Cartilage-increase
in size, mature
4.Zone of Calcified Cartilage-gets hard
epiphysial line-all that is left after growth
in length stops
J. Bone Remodeling
1. every nine mths = new skelton
2. occurs as normal process at all times-repair
of broken bones,repair of damaged bones
3. osteoporosis-bones become brittle and thin
4. osteomalcia-bone matrix/remodeling to rapidly
w/o mineral salts, bones soft, rubbery,
Paget's Disease
5. need calcium & phosphous, vitamin D
(calcitriol-active), C, A, B12
6. anabolic steroids cause shoe stature and
various problems
K. Fracture & Repair of Bone
1. closed fracture-doesn't penetrate skin
2. open fracture-bone breaks through skin,more
serious- dangers-infection,damage other
muscles,tendons,nerves
3. open reduction-doesn't require surgery
opening to fix bones,clean fracture,ends cracked
4. closed reduction-requires surgical opening
to repair bone ends, smashed bone w/pieces
5. symptoms of bone break-discoloration,edema(swelling),pain,
deformity
6. damage has occured to BV,nerves,bone cells,perosteium
7. 4 steps to repair fracture
a. Fractured Hematoma
Stage (6-8hrs)-clot forms
b. Procallus-Cartilage
Model (3-4 wks)-massive infusion of capillaries, osteoproginator
cell produces chondroblasts, fibroblast produce collagen (weld bone ends
together),
form lump around wound
c. Bony Callus (3-4
mths)-osteoblasts produced, spongy boen produced to replace cartilage
d. Remodeling (9 mths)
L. Bone's Role in Calcium Homeostasis
1. bones have 500-1000 times more concentration
of calcium than body
2. body is reservior for calcium in skeleton--take
when needed
3. low calium->respritory arrest
high calcium->cardiac arrest
4. PTH-parathyroid hormone-necessary for maintaince
of calcium homeostasis, recovers&
recycles calcium from urine, eliminates phosporus with urine, helps in
production of
calcitriol (active vitamin D)
5. Thyroid Gland-produces calcitonin hormone->inhibits
osteoclast production,encourage deposit
Calcium in bone
***Clinical Application:pulsating electromagnetic fields(PEMFs)-send
electric current->osteoblast grows,
divide mending of bone if doesnt normally heal ***
M. Exercise & Bone
1. puts stress on skeleton, caise skeleton
to strengthen(builds bone)
2. encourages calcitonin production
N. Aging:
1. men start to lose bone mass around age
60
2. women start around age 30, increase 40-45,
1/3 gone by age 70
Chapter 7: The Skeletal System:The Axial Skeleton
1.) consists of cranium, face, and vertebral column
2.) bone shapes & origins
1.)long= lenth > width 2.)short=
length = width 3.)irregular=dont fit elsewhere
4.)flat= 2 thin layers of dense bone w/spongy
bone between
5.)sesmoid-unique,forms completely within
a tendon(ex.patella)
6.)suteral(Wormian)-unique,grow between sutures,
(ex fontanel)
3.) surface features of bone (pg. 167)
1.)condyles-large, round, articular surface
(found in joints)
2.)depressions-recesses in bone where other
bone may slide into
3.)groove-area where BV or nerve will lie
4.)openings
4.) 206 bones in adult skeleton
1.) axial-80 bones
2.) appendicular-126 bones
5.) suture- binds things together, pattern distinct in each
person, 4 main in skull
1.) coronal=F-2P 2.) sagittal=P-P
3.) lamboid=2P-O 4.) squamosal=P-T
6.) Bones of Cranium
1.) frontal (1)-forms anterior part of cranium
(frontal squama-forehead), anterior
part of floor of cranium,superior part of eye orbit, metopic
stuture-where 2 frontal bones dont completely bond, supraorbital
margin-sunshade, mechanical protection, supraorbital notch(foramen)
-opening for BV, nerves to exit face, ffrontal sinus-canvity in bone to
lighten-aid in sound___, thick bone,
2.) parietal (2)-superior part of cranium,
all main sutures attatch to parietal, bumpy
3.) temporal (2)-inferior sides of cranium,
part of floor of cranium, lenoid fossa-
depression on ventral side of bone, mandible articulates, zygomatic
arch-attatchment of muscles(zygomatic process of temporal bone
temporal process of zygomatic bone), carotid/jugular foramen-
openings for carotid artery/jugular vein to enter/leave, TMJ-
temporal mandibular joint-mandible doesnt ride right-headache,
mastoid process-neck muscles attatch, mastoiditis-inflamation on
bone, styloid process-tongue&neck muscles attatch, not dense,
thinnest, air fills cells
4.) occipital (1)-posterior part of cranium,base
of cranium,foramen magnum-hole
through ventral side of bone-exit of medulla, occipital condyle-
large rounded articular surface where craium meets C1, external
occipital protuberence-connects ligamentum nuche from C7
5.) sphenoid (1)-center(inferior medial) of
skull, batwing bone, all bones of cranium
fuse to this, very thin, sphenoid sinus-bellow eye level, sterogoid
process-jaw muscles attatch,optic foramen-optic nerve brain to eye
6.) ethmoid (1)-smallest bone, forms middle
of the floor of cranium mostly on
anterior end, between orbits, forms part of medial wall of orbit,
superior part of nasal septum(divides nasal cavity), part of roof of
nasal passage, ethmoid sinus-lots of cells giving porosity, superior
& middle nasal concha(waves in nasal septum)-trap pathogens/disease
7.) Sinuses
1.)Frontal 2.) Ethmoid
3.) Sphenoid 4.) Maxillary
8.) Facial Bones (14)
1.) nasal (2)-produce superior & middle
part of face
2.) maxilla (2)-upper jaw bones, form anterior
3/4 of hard palate, articulates w/all
facial bones except mandible, produces part of floor of orbit,
maxillary sinus, part of lateral wall of nasal cavity
3.) zygomatic (2)-cheek bones, part of lateral
wall & floor of orbit, zygomatic arch
4.) mandible (1)-lower jaw, 3 parts..1.)body-U,horizontal
structure, alveolar process
-where teeth sockets are, mental forameen-opening through which
mental nerve exits(controls face&lip sensation), 2.) Ramus-vertical
sides, condylar process-articulates w/glenoid fossa(open/close mouth)
coronoid process-site of muscle attatchment, 3.) angle-body meets
ramus, mandibular foramen-trigeminal nerve(controls sensation/speech)
5.) lacrimal (2)-form part of medial wall/posterior
wall of orbit, lateral wall of nasal
cavity, small, lacrimal foramen-opening through which lacrimal duct
passes--tear duct
6.) palatine (2)-posterior 1/4 of hard palate,
part of floor of orbit, part of floor &
lateral wall of nasal cavity
7.) inferior nasal concha (2)-part of lateral
wall of nasal cavity, very thin
8.) Vomer (1)- long thin triangle, forms posterior
& inferior septum
9.) Hyoid Bone- does not articulate w/any other bone in body,
site of neck muscle
attatchment, primary support for tongue, strangulation fracture
10.) Orbit (7)-C:frontal,sphenoid,ethmoid, F:lacrimal,palatine,zygomatic,maxillary
11.) Vertebral Column-protects spinal cord, support, site for
rib attatchments,
intervertebral foramina(at least 1 pair)-openings between vertebra
where nerves exit, vertebral foramen-spinal cord through center
Infant: 7 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar
5 sacral 4 coccyx
Adult: 7 cervical 12 thoracic
5 lumbar 1 sacral 1 coccyx
1.) diameter of vertebral
foramen decreases from head to foot
2.) thickness of vertebrae
increases from head to foot (weight barring)
3.) vertebral column-
2/5 height female=61 cm male =71 cm
4.) intervertebral
disks-shock absorber/cushioning
5.) 2 Parts: centrum(body)-anterior
side, size increase more inferior (weight)
verterbral(neural)arch-openinf for spinal cord(vertebral foramen)
6.) curves- 3 mths-cervical,
6mths-lumbar.....shock absorber
7.) 4 bones:2 lamina(posterior),
2 pedicles (anterior)...make neural arch
8.) 7 processes on
vertebrae (except C1)
1.) 2 superior articular processes-articulates w/vertebra above it
2.) 2 inferior articular processes-articulates w/vertebra below it
3.) 2 transverse processes-point laterally,muscle attatchment-stomach/pelvis
4.) spinus process-point posteriorly, muscle attatchment
12.) Cervical Vertebrae-vertebrae on most superior part, smallest
body, >neural arch
C1-atlas,no body,
largest lateral processes, occipital condyle-holds up head
C2-axis,slightly larger,
has spinus process, bifid(Y shape)-muscle attatchment
on both sides of neck, body(dens)-limits range of motion
C3-C6-body gets bigger,arches
smaller,processes get bigger
C7-spinous process(cervical
prominence),ligmentum nuche attatches
13.) Thoracic Verterbrae (T1-T12)
larger bodies, smaller
foramina, transverse processes more substantial, spinous
processes longer/flatter/points
inferiorly(restricts movement),demifacets-ribs art.
14.) Lumbar Vertebrae (L1-L5)
largest body, smaller
foramina, wider/larger transverse processes, wider/broader/
larger spinous processes,
spinal tap-removes cerebral fluid(between L3-L4,L4-L5)
find pathogens/antigens
from pathogenic disease
15.) Sacral Vertebrae (S1-S5)
sacrum, triangular
shaped bone, anterior side->sacral ridges->show where vertebra
fused, sacral formina-where
transverse processes fuse together, sacral canal-
continous w/spinal
cord, sacral hiatus-inferior side, epidural(anesthetic)
16.) Coccyx (Co1-Co5)
triangular shaped,
age 20-30 fuse, protect rectum & urogenital organs
17.) Sternum-(thorax)--3 pieces
1.) manubrium-superior
part, sternal angle-divides manubrium & body, sternal notch-
(jugular notch)-superior side of manubrium, clavicular notch-clavival artic.
w/sternum, ribs attatch
2.) body-ribs attatch
3.) xiphoid process-end
of sternum
18.) Ribs
12 pairs, 1-7 increase
in length, 8-12 decrease in length, intercostal cartilage
connects sternum to
ribs, 1-7 reibs connect to sternum by intercostal cartilage,
8-10 ribs connect
to cartillage which is attatched to intercostal cartilage to
sternum, 11-12 not
connected to sternum(free=floating ribs), 2 thin layers of
compact bone w/spongy
bone in the middle,sternal puncture-take marrow, analyze
body-various sizes,
costal groove-BV&nerves run down length of body, tubercle-
body meets neck, articular
surface-meets demifacet of vertebra, superior &
inferior articular
facets- V-shaped, end of neck
19.) Intercostal Spaces-covered by external & internal intercostals,
lots of nerves&BV
Chapter 8: The Appendicular Skeleton
I. 4 Parts
A. Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)
1. main function-attatchment
of arm to body
2. clavicle-collar
bone, s-shaped bone, most likely to break bone in center, most
commonly broken bone in body, proximal end(sternal end)=sternal
extremity-rounded, articulates w/sternum, meets sternum at
sternoclavicular joint, costal tuberosity-ligament attatchment point,distal
end-flat articular surface=acromial extremeity, atriculates w/acromium
process of scapula, joint between acromium process & scapula-
acromioclavicular joint
3. scapula-wing bone,shoulder
blade,between rips 2 & 7,triangular shaped bone,flat
broad, body-borad expansive part, spine-superior, runs medial to lateral,
muscle attatchment, acromium process-lateral end of spine, glenoid cavity-
lateral side of scapula, atricualtes w/humerous, coracoid process-hook
shaped, muscle attatchment, supra & infra spinous fossa for supra &
infra
spinatus muscles-flattened areas to which muscles attatch on dorsal side,
subscapular fossa-for subscapularis-anterior side, scapular notch-suprascap
nerves run thru
B. Arm (Upper Extremity)
1. 60 bones, 2 humerous,
2 radius, 2 ulna, 16 carpal, 10 metacarpal, 28 phlanges
2. humerous-longest
bone in arm, proximally articulates w/scapula, distally articualtes
w/radius & ulna, head-large rounded articular surface, anatomical neck-
directly distal to head, epiphyseal growth plate, greater & lesser
tubercle-
muscles override, ligaments attatch, intertubecular sulcus-bicep tendon
runs
thru, surgical neck-most likely to break, body(shaft)-long portion, deltoid
tuberosity-deltoid bone attatches, distal end=epicondyles(muscle attatch),
posterior-olccranon fossa-ulna meets humerous(limits motion), anterior-
radial fossa-radius meets hum(bent),coranoid fossa-ulna meets hum(bent)
between medial epicondyle & trochlea--ulnar nerve rides
3. ulna-proximal end=
posterior-olecronon process fits into olecronon fossa(limit),
articular surface-trochlea of humerous, anerior-articulation w/radius
distal end=sytloid process(muscle), wrist/carpal articulate w/ulna fibrocart
4. radius-head=antriculates
w/capitulum, ulnar notch, anterior-radial tuberosity(bicep)
distal=articulates w/ carpals (fibrocartilage)
5. carpals-proximal
row:scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum,pisiform
distal:trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
6. metacarpals-1,2,3,4,5
7. phalages-phalanx,
14 perhand
C. Pelvis (2 hip bones)-
1. each has three
parts--meet at socket (acetabulum)
2. ilium-superior,
largest, iliac crest-superior side, anterior/superior/inferior/posterior
iliac spine(muscle), greater sciatic notch-sciatic nerve off vertebrae
to leg
iliac fossa-anterior side (muscle), articular surface(sacrum-ilium)
2. ishium-inferior
posterior, 3 parts-superior ramus,inerfior ramus,ishial tuberosity
(betweem rami), ishial spine-points posterior, muscle attatch, lesser sciatic
notch-inferior to ishial spine, form part bony circle w/obturator foramen
mid
3. pubis-inferior
anterior, superior&inferior ramus meet at pubic crest, forms obturator
foramen, pubic symphysis-touch fibrocartilage, ine from superior pubic
crest
to S1-above line=greater false pelveis, below=lesser true pelvis, above=part
of
abdomen, uterus during preg, pelvic brim-circumfrence of line=pelvic inlet,
pelvic outlet-bottom of pubic symphysis to Co4,
4. female--greater
pubic arch
D. Lower Extremity (leg)
1. 60 bones-2 femurs
2 patellas 2 tibia 2 fibula 14 tarsal 10 metatarsal 28 phalange
2. femur-proximal-head articulates
w/acetabulum of hipbone, hole in head for nerve,
neck-most likelt to break, greater trochanter-sup/lat, lesser-post/inferior
(muscle), shaft-curved, linea aspera-ridge,post muscle attatch, distal=
medial/lateral epicondyle-muscle attatchment, medial/lateral condyle-artic
w/tibia, intercondylar fossa-patella side up/down, ACL/PCL cruciate ligaments
3. Patella-sesmoid
bone, completely enclosed in tendons, triangular shape-base/apex/2
articular surfaces ride between condyles help leverage quadracep muscle
4. Tibia-largest bone
in lower leg, weight baring bone in lower leg, medial/lateral
condyles on proximal end, articulate w/ femue, tibial tuberosity-patellar
ligament attatch, distal:medial malleolus-inside shin bone, ligament attatch,
tibia articulates w/talus, fibular notch-lateral side, fibula articulare
w/tibia
5. Fibula-non-weight
baring bone in lower leg, proximal end artic w/tibia, inferior to
lateral condyle, distal end:articulates w/ tibia and talus
6. Tarsus-ankle-calcaneous,
talus, cuboid, navicular, cuniforms(lateral,intermediate,medial)
achilles tendon attatches to calcaneous
7. Metatarsals- 1,2,3,4,5
8. Phalanges-14 per
foot hallux(big toe)
9. Arches-longitudinal(medial,lateral),
transverse
Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue
-40% -50% by weight = muscle
-three kinds-skeletal(voluntary,striated), smooth(involuntary),
cardiac(straited involuntary)
skeletal-cylindrical, multinucleated cells,
striped
smooth-long thin at each end, single nucleus
cardiac-fibers form network, single nucleus,
cross connected cells (autorythmic)
-functions-motion, thermoregulation (85% body heat generated
by muscle), help regulate
volume of organ, stabalization of position
-traits-excitability(producing electrical impulses-action potentials--neurotransmitter
hormones)
-contractibility-tightening
(shorter and thicker)
-extensibility-stretching
(150% of normal before destroyed)
-elasticity-returning to
pre-contraction length/shape
-BV & Nerves-bring oxygen and ATP, myoglobin-stores oxygen
(more=darker)
-coverings-superficial fascia/subcutaneous layer/hypodermis-directly
under epidermis&dermis,
made of areolar CT and fat
-deep fascia-under superfiscial, made oof dense irreg CT, packaging--holds
muscles
together, seperates muscles, BV & nerves & lymphocytes
1.)epimysium-outermost, covers entire muscle
2.)perimysium-covers muscle bundle
3.)endomysium-covers muscle fiber(cell)
-Tendon(enxtensions of coverings that contain collagen)-Aponeurosis-broad,
flat,skin-bone-mus
-Galia aponeurotica-frontalis
to occipitalis muscles
-synovial tendons(tendon
sheats)-fluid similar to that produced by bursae
-Motor Unit-control of muscles, consists of nore neuron and
the fibers it controls (~150)
-Neuromuscular Junction-neuron-nerve cell,dentrite,body&axon,impulses
pass only one way,
sensory-go to brain, motor-from brain, motor
end plate-indentation in fiber membra, axon
comes but doesnt touch fiber, impulse foes
to axon terminal(bulb at end of axon), sapce
called synaptic cleft, synaptic vessicles
in axon terminals produce substance to bridge gap to
pass impulse to muscle fibers--neurotransmitter
called acetylcholine[ACh], acetylcholinesterase
breaks synaptic bridge
-Microscopic Anatomy
-muscle fiber--cell -muscle
fibril-parts(units) of fiber -myofilaments-parts of fibrils
-sarcolemma-outer living covering of muscle
fibers -sarcolplasm-cytoplams of muscle cell
-sarcoplasmic reticulum-ER of muscle cell
-Types of Myofilaments
-thick-myosin -thin-actin
-elastic-titin,attatch thick myofilamennts to m line
-Sarcomere-functional unit of contraction in muscle
-z disk-boundries between sarcomere
-I band-only thin myofilamnets
-H zone-only thick myofilaments
-A band-both thick and thin filaments
-Sliding Filament Mechanism
-Sarcoplasmic Reticulum-series of parallel to transport, most
important--transports calcium
(increase=contraction, decrease=extension),
calcium from skeleton->blood->SR(active process)
-ATP to ADP liberated energy--process of hydrolysis
-Relaxation-ACh broken down by acetylcholinesterase
-Rigor Mortis
-Muscle Tone-continual small contractions
1.) body rounded w/good muscle tone
2.) hypertonia-having good tone (rigid-normal
reflex, spastic-exaggerated reflex)
3.) hypotonia-muscles are flasccid (flabby)
- flat body muscles
-Muscle Metabolism
1.) ATP source of energy from muscle fiber
(2-3 sec)
2.) creatine phosphate-liberate-goes to ADP
to make more ATP (15 sec)
3.) glycogen -lactic acid process-starts w/glycogen->glucose->10
steps of glycolsis->
2ATP, 2 Pyruvic acid--anerobic
(not efficient)
4.) pyruvic acid->mitochondria w/oxygen->ATP
+lactic acid(most)
80% lactic acid produced
sent to heart,kidney,liver to get ATP (30-40sec)
5.) Aerobic system-Calvin cycle/Hydrogen transport
cycle/electron transport-ATP produced
and lost of oxygen(from
blood/myoglobin)-prolonged activity(>10min, 90%aerobic)
-Maximum oxygen uptake--amt oxygen used peak excer, condition
of body,enviro,age,hered,sex
1.) oxygen debt 2.) recovery
oxygen consumption
-Muscle Fatigue causes
1.) low ATP 2.) strength
of contraction decreases 3.) rate of contraction decreases
-Homeostasis of Body Temp
1.) smooth muscle of BV dilate, more blood
to surface, heat lost by radiation/evaporation
2.) cool down, BV constrict, less blood at
surface, heat conserved in core
-Adjusting Muscle tension
1.) twitch contraction-mygram records muscle
contraction--4 parts
a. latent phase-no
contraction occurs(Calcium leaks from SR to myofil) 2 millisec
b. contraction phase-fibers
contract 10-100 millisec
c. Recovery/Relaxation
phase- 10-100 millisec, calcium goes into SR
d. refractory phase-time
between relaxation and latent phase, under normal conditions, no
contraction can occur (superthreshold stimulus)
-Rebuild Muscle
1.) Rebuild ATP 2.)lactic
acid converted back to pyruvic acid 3.) produce glycogen
4.) produce myoglobin 5.)
produce creatine phosphate
-Tetanus-dependant on calcium
1.) incomplete-20-30 stimulations per sec->
some relaxation of fiber
2.) complete- 80-100 stimulation per sec->
no relaxation of fiber
-staircase effect (treppe)
1.) similar stimuli-each stimuli adds calcium
to cel (warm up-increase efficiency of muscle)
-length of muscle fiber
1.) best when fully contracted
2.) stretch more than 175% of optimum lendth--will
never contract (no over lap)
-Active Tension/Passive Tension
1.) active-muscle fibers
2.) passive-stretching of tendon
3.) recuritment- # motor neurons working depends
on amt of work to be done
-isotonic exercise-move constant load through range of motion,
shortening of muscle
1.) concentric-contracting, pulls on bone
2.) eccentric-ralxing, returning to flattened
postition
-isometric-under tension, but no shortening of muscle fiber
-Anerobic/ Aerobic training
1.) aerobic-builds endurance
2. anerobic-builds strength --interval training
-types of skeletal muscle fibers
red cells contain lots of myoglobin, lots
of mitochondria, lots of capillaries
white cells-few mitochondria, capillaries
1.) fast twitch/fast oxidative/fatigue resistant-don't
need fast energy (ex. leg muscles), lots of
myoglobin, lots of
mitochondria, capillaries, aerobic
2.) slow twitch/clow oxidative/fatigu resistant-require
constant energy, work hard all the time
but not fast (ex.
postral muscle of back and neck)
3.) fast twitch/fast gylcolytic/fatigable-tire
easily (ex. arm), low myo, mintochon,capil, anerob
all muscle made of all three types (higher
concentration of one type)
-Cardiac Muscle (straited, involuntary)
1.) intercalcated disks-connect fibers on
laterals-strength in all direc, network of fibers
2.) autorhythmic-entire heart muscle contracts
at one time
-Smooth Muscle
1.) thick, thin, intermidiate fibers(unorganized)
10-15 times more thin than thick
2.) visceral-single unit (ex. small BV, hollow
organs)
3.) multi-unit (ex. large BV, bronchiolles,
iris)
4.) arrector pilli-hair stand on end
Chapter 13: The Nervous System
I. Coverings (Meninges, meninx) of spinal cord and spinal nerves
1. Dura Matter-outermost, dense irreg CT,
ends at S2, protective, avascular,btw brain/cranium
2. Epidural Space-between cranium & dura
matter, filled w/fat, CT, acts as shock absorber
3. Arachnoid- middle, fibers look like spider
web, made primarily of elastic fibers (some
collagen), avascular
4. Subdural Space-btw. dura matter & arachnoid,
interstitial fluid(extracellular fluid)-
mostly plasma--water
5. Pia Matter-inner most, vascular, gives
spinal cord nutrients, removes waste, made mostly
of collagen, very
tight to brain
6. Subarachnoid Space-btw. atachnoid and pia
matter, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)-lubricant
moving through nervous
system, indicator of brain's health
** Spinal Tap- L3/4 or L4/5 up to subarachnoid space, to check
CSF**
II. Denticulate Ligaments- anchor spinal cord
1. outgrowths of pia matter
III. External Features of Spinal Cord
1. btw 4/5 yrs--length is complete (ave 42-46
cm long)
2. stops at L2
3. 2 cm diameter (dorsoventrally flattened)
4. thickenings--cervical enlargement-bwt C4/T1,
controls upper extremity
--lumbar enlargement-btw T9/T12, controols lower appendages
--concus medullaris-btw L1/L2, end os sspinal cord, cone shaped, pointed
5. filum terminal-outgrowth of pia matter,
anchor spinal cord to coccyx
6. cauda equina-nerves at inferior end of
spinal cord
IV. Internal Anatomy of Spinal Cord
1. posterior/anterior horns--gray matter
2. anterior/posterior nerve root-becomes spinal
nerve (31 pairs)
3. Intervetebral Foramen- nerves exit vertebrae,
meninges stop
4. central canal- all the way to 4th ventricle
of brain--CSF collects
5. lateral horn--only in thoracic , lumbar,
sacral regions, gray matter
6. anterior medial fissure/posterior medial
sulcus
V. Gray Matter
1. contains bodies of neurons, unmyelinated
axons/dendrites(sensory nerves), *myelin-
protective covering
of nerves,* association(processing) nerve, neuroglia(glial cells),
integrates/interprets/processes
information
VI. White Matter
1. white commisure-connects two anterior white
lobes into one
2. posterior white lobes, lateral white lobes
3. sensory(left) to brain(ascending), motor(right)
from brain(decending)
4. surrounds gray matter
5. columns-either sensory or motor
6. broken into regions called tracts
7. conducts impulses
8. sensory tracts-
a. Spinothalmic Tracts-anterior
left, responsible for temp,pain,general touch, to thalmus
b. Fasciculus gracilus
& cuneatus-posterior column tracts, propreoception (knowing where
muscles,tendons,joints are), discriminating touch(knowing minute diff btw
sim. objects)
pressure sensation, vibration
9. motor tracts
a. Pyramidal Tracts-anterior
& lateral corticospinal, corticobulbar---skeletal muscle funct
b. Extrapyramidal-vestibulospinal,technospinal,rubrospinal---posture,equilibrium,
autonomic body functions, vision to muscle function
VII. Reflexes-stimulus does not go to brain, only to spinal
cord
1. must contain one sensory and one motor
nerve
2. somatic-skeletal muscle, controlable
3. visceral-involuntary,digestive,respiration,BV
diamter, urination, heart rate,defecation
4. Relex Arc
a. receptor---ex.
eyes, pain
b. sensory neuron--receptor
to spinal cord
c. association neurons--interpret,integrate
d. motor neuron- spinal
cord to effector
e. effector---ex.
muscle, gland
f. monosynaptic reflex
arc-2 neurons(1sensor/1motor),1 synapes, few,no association neurons
g. polysynaptic reflex
arc- 3 or more neurons, 2 or more synapses, most in body
h. ipsilateral reflex
arc-affects only one side of spinal cord
i. contralateral reflex
arc-affects both sides of spinal cord
5. Patellar reflex-ipsilateral, stretch reflex
arc, resulting in muscle contraction, exaggerated= MS
underactive= spinal
cord damage
6. reciprocal inervation-every action has
equal and opp reaction ==> smooth contractions
7. stretch reflex- helps to prevent over stretching
8. tendon reflex- prevents excess tension(leads
to tearing), tendon organ-btw tendon/muscle,
sense tendon on tendon,
send out signals which inhibit motor neuron signal to tendon/musc
9. flexor(withdrawl) reflex-ipsilateral,polysynaptic,
intersegmental(more than one part of SC)
10. crossed extensor reflex arc-contralateral,
polysynaptic, intersegmental
VIII. Spinal Nerves-31 pairs, 8 cervical,12 thoracic, 5 lumbar,
5 sacral, 1 cpccygeal
1. mixed nerve-sensory and motor nerve together
2. coverings of nerve-under myelin (fatty
substance)
a. epineurium-of entire
nerve
b. perineurium-of
one fascicle
c. endoneurium-of
one neuron
3. exit at intervetebral foramina then split
into dorsal ramus(responsible for control of deep
muscles/skin on back
of body), ventral ramus(larger, controls upper and lower extrem
skin/muscle on ventral
side, laterals of trunk), meningeal branch(goes back through
intervetebral foramen
into SC, controls BV,ligaments,SC, vertebrae it enters, meninges
in region) and rami
communicantes(part of autonomic nervous system, controls BV,
arrector pilli muscles
IX. plexuses-networks, interchanges of nerves, 4 responsible
for most peripheral nerves
1. cervical (C1/C5) 2. brachial
(C5/T1) 3. lumbar (L1/L4) 4. sacral
(L4/S4)
X. Dermatome-picture telling which nerve control what part of
body
Chapter 14: The Brain and Cranial Nerves
I. CNS- brain, cranial nerves (off-shoots of brain)
II. Brain Development/principle parts
1. 4 wk embryo
2. prosencephalon-for brain
a. diencephalon-thalmus,
hypothalmus (glandular parts)
b. telencephalon-
cerebrum
3. mesencephalon-mid brain (doesn't change
from formation)
4. rhombencephalon-hind brain
a. myelencephalon-medualla
b. metencephalon-pons,
cerebellum
III. Protection and Coverings (meninges)
1. dura matter-outer most
\
2. arachnoid
- continuous with spinal meningess
3. pia matter-inner most
/
IV. Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)
1. bathes spinal cord and brain
2. travels in subarachnoid space
3. 4 ventricles (1&2 btw.cerebral hemis,3
btw 1/2s of thalmus,4 btw brain stem,cerebellum)
4. almost clear, slightly yellow liquid (80-150
ml)
5. contains glucose, lactic acid, urea, proteins,
cations (Na, Ca, K, Mg) anions (Cl, HNO3),
lymphocytes (WBC- eat foreign)
6. functions- supplies nutrients, removes
wastes, determines health of SC/brain, mechanical
protection, chemical protection (optimum function of brain/SC)
7. production- choroid plexuses--capillaries
lining ventricles, produces from blood plasma
extremely tight cell juctions, selective in letting things in to CSF (barrior)
8. Pathway- 1/2 vent->3 vent-> 4 vent->down
posterior side of SC->up anterior side->anterior/
frontal lobe of brain->arachnoid villi (CSF reabosrbed)--20mL/hr...480mL/day
10. hydrocephalus-obstruction interfereing
w/drainage of CSF
V. Blood Supply
1. BV rich
2. 2% total body weight
3. 20% of oxygen at rest
4. high brain usage increases oxygen need
5. lysosomes- burst prematurely in low oxygen
environ...enzymes destroy brain cells
6. brain cells cant store glucose (need steady
supply)
7. absorbtion--
a. rapid- lipid soluble
(caffine, heroine, cocaine, nicotine, most anesthetics)
water soluble (water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, cerbon monoxide)
b. slow- urea, creatine,
most ions
c. not abosorbed-
protein (too big for tight junctions), antibiotics-carrier glucose
8. Blood Brain Barrior-tight junctions (very
selective)...liposomes(drug carriers)
9. Circumventricular Organs- BV which line
3/4 ventricle--lack BBB
a. make up parts of
Hypothalmus, pineal gland, pituitary gland
b. monitor the chemical
balance of blood
10. nervous and endocrine systems help maintain
VI. Brain Stem: Anatomy and Physiology (most inferior)
1. Medulla Oblungata
a. connected directly
to SC, developed from myelencephalon, superior to foramen magnum
3cm long
b. pyramids- "knees"
motor tracts of spinal cord (fasciculus) become nucleus gracilus &
nucleus cuneatus (continuous)
c. functions-cardiovascular
center (regulates rate & force of heart beat), respritory center
(regulates rate, force, rhythm of breathing)-dependent on metabolism,
swallowing, coughing, sneezing, vomitting, hiccuping
d. Cranial nerves
(12 pairs)
12. hypoglossal nerve--tongue
11. accessory nerve--head/shoulder motion
10. vagus nerve--all abdominal/thoracic organs
9. glossopharangeal nerve- swallowing, salivation, taste
8. vestibulocochlear-hearing, equilibrium
e. olive-lateral,
connected medulla to cerebellum by inferior cerebellar peduncles, functions:
posture, equilibrium, precise voluntary movements
f. vestibular nuclear
complex
2. Pons
a. superior to medulla,
level with cerebellum, 2.5 cm long
b. function: act as
bridge btw SC, brain, parts of brain
c. middle cerebellar
peduncles connect pons to cerebellum
1. transverse fibers- connect left/right halves of cerebellum
2. longitudinal fibers- transfers sensory and motor impulses SC to/from
cerebral cortex
d. cranial nerves
8. vestibular of vestibulocochlear nerve- equilibrium
7. facial nerve- taste, salivation, facial expressions
6. abducans nerve- eyeball movement
5. trigeminal nerve- chewing, jaw, head, face sensation (parts)
e. apaneustic and
pneumotaxic-respiratory function
3. Reticular Function
a. part of medulla,
pons, midbrain, white & gray matter, sensory & motor
b. function- skeletal
muscle function, muscle tone, act as early warning to cerbral cortex
4. Mid brain
a. derived from mesencephalon,
superior to pons, 2.5 cm long
b. cerebral peduncles--contain
sensory/motor tracts, transmit impulses to/from Cereb Cort
c. superior cerebellar
peduncles--connect midbrain to cerebellum
d. tectum (dorsal
midbrain) lobes (corpraquadragemina)
1. 2 superior colliquli --affect head/neck movement (respond to visual
stimuli)
2. 2 inferior colliquli --affect head/neck movement (respond to auditory
stimuli)
e. substantia nigra-
highly pigmented, responsible subconsious skeletal muscle action
f. red nuclei (bodies)-
rich in hemoglobin (red), high Fe content, origin rubrospinal tract
g. cranial nerves
4. trochlear-some eyeball movements
3. occulomotor-some eyeball movements, pupil size, shape of lens
h. medial lemniscus-found
in midbrain, medull, pons, transmits impulses for discriminating
touch, proprioception, vibration, pressure, from medulla to thalmus
VII. Diencephalon- fore brain
1. thalmus
a. 4/5 of diencephalon,
3cm long, last part of brain to have evolved
b. mostly gray matter,
some white
c. intermediate mass
connects right/left halves
d. relay station-stimuli
from SC, medulla, pons, cerebellum, mid brain to cerebral cortex
e. crude determination
of temp, pain, pressure
f. sensory & motor
receptors
1. medial geniculate nucleus (region)--hearing
2. lateral geniculate nucleus--vision
3. venteral posterior geniculate nucleus--taste,somatic sensations (skin,
muscle input)
4.ventral/lateral nulceus--control of voluntary muscle, arousal
5. anterior nucleus--emotions, memory
2. hypothalmus
a. 1/5 diencephalon,
inferior to thalmus, no BBB (pathogens can enter)
b. relay station-regulates
homeostasis
c. regions--
1. mammillary-smell
2. tuberal-regulates hormone production, controls itself, pituitary gland
3. supraoptic-transports pituitary hormones oxytocin(contract), antidiuretic(conserve)
4. preoptic-autonomic region
d. functions--controls/integrates
ANS, controls rage/anger, regulates body temp/food needs
thirst center, regulate/maintain waking state/sleep patterns
VIII. Cerebrum (Telencephalon)
1. largest part, 2-4mm gray matter, rest-white
cerebral matter
2. functions-critical thinking, writing speech,
creativity, calculating ability, memoryy, planning
3. folds--more surface area...gyrus(gyri)-bumps.....sulcus-valley,groove.....fissure-deep
4. corpus callosum-connects left/right hemispheres
5. falx cerebri-extension of dura matter,
runs btw left/right hemispheres
6. lobes-frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
(visible), insula (inside)
a. central sulcus-
divides frontal and parietal lobes
b. precentral gyrus-
frontal, largest single primary motor area
c. post centarl gyrus-
parietal, responsible for somatic function(skin,muscle,joints,organ)
d. lateral central
sulcus- divides frontal/temporal bones
e. parietooccipital
sulus- divides parietal/occipital lobes
f. transverse fissure-
seperates cerebellum & cerebrum
7. white matter-mostly myelinated axons
a. association fibers-transmit
impulses, various gyri, one hemis
b. commissural fibers-
carry impulse, similar gyri, diff hemis
c. projection fibers-
cerebral cortex to spinal cord
8. basal ganglia-input/output to/from cerebral
cortex, thalmus, hypothalmus
9. Lymbic System-all emotional aspects of
life controlled, survival instincts, pleasure, pain,
memory, anger, rage, sorrow, fear, docility, sexual feeling
10. Brain Injuries
a. concusion-no blood
loss/unconsciousness, can be memory loss, brain hits cranium
b. contusion-brushing,
mild blood loss, memory loss (min/hrs/days)
c. laceration-tear,
massive blood loss building up pressure (leak out ears, etc)
11. Functional Area of Brain-
a. sensory-
1. primary somatorsensory-parietal,postcentral gyrus, recieves stimuli
from skin, muscle,
joints, organs
2. primary visual region- occipital region, sight
3. primary auditory region- temporal region, rhythm, pitch, tone
4. primary gustatory region- parietal region, taste
5. primary olfactory region- temporal region, smell
b. motor
1. primary motor region-precentral gyrus, skilled, detailed, fine muscle
2. language areas-anything converts speech, written word into thought,
speech
c. association areas
(processing areas-connect motor/sensroy)
1. somatosensory accessory- parietal, stores past experiences, integrate,
compares exper
2. visual association- occipital, helps evaluate visual info through past
experiences
3. auditory association- temporal, interpretes past experience through
sound
4. gnostic association- interprets sensory from taste, smell, thalmus,
brain stem
Chapter 16: The Special Senses
Olfactory Sense, Gustatory Sense, Vision, Hearing, Equilibrium