Bioenergetics: Movement of energy between organisms
Chapter 23 Classification (380-386)
Taxonomy-study of classification & how kingdoms came about
Five Kingdoms: Anamalia,
Plantae, Fungi, Protoctists, and Prokaryote
Needed because of so many organisms (2.5 million)
History:4th century BC- Aristotle: lay foundation, classify according
to parts,
based on observations of blood/noblood, animals by air/water/land
Theophratits-plants by stem (soft, large,
amount)
Mid 1700s- Carolus Linnaeus: (Sweden), father of
Modern
Classification, started with two kingdoms, Systema Naturi,
Binomial Nomenclature-Latin (easy to understand, no longer
spoken-doesn't change), can easily add/move
Kingdom,
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
(name Genus species)-italicized or underlined
Modern: has changed, more kingdoms, more organisms
Cell Basics:
People:
Anton Von Leewenhoek-developing 1st microscope
Robert Hooke-coined "cell," saw 1st cell
Matthais Schleiden-1st to recognise that all plants have cells
1838
Thedor Schwann-recognized that all animals have cells 1839
Rudolf Virchow-all cells come from preexisting cells 1850s
Cell Theory:
basis for studying, reference point
by Schleiden & Schwann
1.) all living things are composed of cells
2.) cells are basic units of structure & function
of living things
3.) all cells come from pre-existing cells
Cells vary in size: (micrometer=millionth of meter)
smallest: 0.02 micrometer in diameter
largest: 1000 micrometer in diameter
most between 5-50 micrometers
in diameter
Some structure are common to most cells:
1.) cell membrane-regulates what enters & leaves, aids in protection
& support, composed of a double layer of lipids
(bilayer), proteins act as channels, allow
molecules to pass, carbohydrates attatched to proteins enable calls
to recognize/interact-->fluid mosaic model
2.) nucleus-large dark structure in many cells, not present in all
cells, contains DNA(genetic material), directs activities
that occur in living cells, surrounded by
nuclear envelope which allows molecules to move in&out, contains
nucleolus<--made of RNA&proteins
3.) Cytoskeleton-framework of filaments & fibers for support &
movement, composed of microtubes made out of
proteins/produce centrioles, microfilaments permit
movement of cytoplasm (cytoplasmic streaming)
4.) cytoplasm-area that contains organelles, protein rich semifluid
(cytosol)
5.) mitochondria-cellular respiration changes chemical energy in foods
into compounds<--ATP, made of 2 membranes
(outer surounds organelles, inner has folds to
increase surface area), several hundred per cell
6.) cell wall-in plants, algae, some bacteria, protects & supports
cell, very porous--allowing H2O, O2, & CO2 to pass,
made up of cellulose fibers(plants) which makes
wall stretch as it grows
Osmosis-H2O moves high concentration to low through selectively permeable
membrane
Osmotic pressure-moves H2O from more dilute to concentrated
plant cell wall prevents H2O from moving at high speed
contractile vacule-pushes excess water back out
diffusion-any substance from high concentration to low till balence
(equilibrium), once equal-H2O moves back & forth to
maintain
sodium potassium pumps-molecules carrying other molecules
passive transport-no energy required (ex. diffusion)
active transport-requires energy, allow special transport molecules
through proteins (ex. exocytosis-contractile
vacuole, phagocytosis- food particles engulfed,
pinocytosis- tiny vacuoles form around cell)
Plant Structure (chap 31)
Plants are made of tissues that form organs but don not have organ systems:
Roots:monocot, dicot; to absorb H20 & nutrients from soil, hold
plant in place
Stem:monocot, dicot; vascular bundles; support, tissues for
H20 transport
Leaves: monocot, dicot; absorb sunlight for photosynthesis
Reproductive structures: gymnosperms(cones)
angiosperms(flowers)
Leaf structure:
1.leaf blade-big flat surface of leaf
2.Midrib-large vein through center
3.Veins-smaller branching veins
4.Xylem & Phloem-tubes within veins
5.Petiole-stalk, connection bwtween leaf & stem
6.Stomate-opening
7.Upper Epidermis-top
8.Cuticle-on top of upper epidermis, waxy layer, keeps in H20
9.Mesophyll-middle, made of Palisade & Spongy Mesophyll
10.Spongy Mesophyll-spread out cells
11.Palisade layer-long, skinny cellss hanging down from upper
epidermis;contains most chloroplasts(photosynthesis)
12. Lower Epidermis-bottom
Three types of tissue:
Meristematic-embrionic tissue (all other tissues formed from this)
made up of cells that rapidly divide(mitosis)
thin walled, smaller cells
tip of root(longer)& stem(taller)
1. Protective(Epidermal)-to protect cell from bacteria/insects
one cell layer, tightly packed
secrete Cutin (forms cuticle)
2. Vascular-xylum&phloem, conducting tissues, long tubes
3. Fundamental(Ground)-pith
Leaves-composed of combinations of protective, fundamental& vascular
tissue.
Roots-composed of combinationas of protective, vascular, & meristematic
cells.
Root Systems: (hold the plant in place and take in H20/minerals
as large as the system of stems/branches
1. Taproot- 1 larger root, some smaller (ex. carrot)
2. Fibrous- many same size roots
3. Adventitious- roots come out of stem
Growth:root cap
meristematic
zone
elongation
zone
maturation
zone
Path of water:
1. osmosis: soil->roots
2. diffusion: epidermis->cortex->endodermis->pericycle->xylem
3. movement: root xylem->stem xylem-> leaf xylem (veins)
In dicot:
xylem-adds diameter to tree (rings), close to vascular cambium->newest
cells,
(growing conditions: spring-more H20, summer-less H20)
phloem-squished, produced at lower rate than xylem
Learn from cross section:
1. weather/climate conditions
2. age of tree
3. how fast it grows
4. fire-charred area
5. insects small area of growth
remove bark-tree died (no phloem-no food)
Girdling-removing bark from place all around tree-tree dies
Plant Movement
1. Tropism-response/movement toward a stimulus
Phototropism-in response to light
Geotropism-gravitropism, response to gravity
(benificial-get maximum sunlight; roots anchor, get H20/minerals)
growth process-height/diameter
apical meristem-top of stem (elongation)
to bend-cells on one side elongate faster than other side
caused by auxin(IAA)-growth
hormone produced by cells exposed to light
active transport carries to shaded side
shaded cells elongate-plant bends
most important hormone
in roots-auxin causes elongation
(in response to gravity)
in cortex cells-
starch grains-change position in cells leads to auxin
2. Nastic (sismonastic)-touching movement w/o (independent of) the
direction
of the stimulus
impulse triggers auxin-grow together \grow larger everytime
it closes
to open - auxin on inside
/ (only couple times in life)
ex. venus fly trap;mymosa plant-touch leaflets cause complete
collapse (loss
of turgor
pressure)
Charles Darwin 1880s experiment:
oat seedlings(monocot) a.)control b.)tip
stem cut off c.)tip stem covered
grow: to sun
straight
straight
Fritz Vent 1920s experiment:proves that auxin (1st identified)
oat seedlings: a. remove collioptile,
place on auger cube
b.auxin diffuses into auger cube, place on one side of stem
c. auxin diffuses into stem
d. cells on that side elongate->bend
3.Chemotropism- movement in response to a chemical
4. Thigmotropism-growth that is equal because plant makes contact with
solid
object
The Growth Hormones(sm. concentrations;produceinmeristematic;transported)
production controlled by genetic code/environment
variables:many
1. Auxin: most important
IAA-indoleacetic acid
produced in apical meristem
cause elongation-taller stem, long roots(terminal region)
stimulates lateral root growth-marketed as rooting solution
inhibits lateral buds
kill certain plants at a certain concentrations(dicots)herbacides
used to stimulate growth of fruit (bypass fertilization)
2. Gibberellins: produced meristematic
promote growth (similar to auxin)
break down endosperm(seed coat)-germination-enzymes
3. Cytokinins: preform opposite function of auxin
premote cell division/growth of lateral buds
meristematic zone
inhibits growth of lateral roots
4. Abscisic Acid: growth inhibiter
involved in dormancy of seeds (protection device)
closing stomates
shedding of flowers
5. Ethylene: gas given off by ripening fruit (premotes
aging)
Genetics (CH. 12)
Genetics: branch of biology studying heredity
heredity: info offspring receive from parents chromosomes
what makes indivindual unique
Theory of Blending Inheritance:
pre-19th century explanation for
resemblance of parent/offspring
mother/father mixture of characteristics
Gregor Mendel:Austrian monk, carried out experiments over time in garden,
used garden pea, father of modern
genetics, applied math to genetics,
forced cross pollination with
contrasting traits
self-pollination:pollen from stamen to pistil on same flower, plant
offespring
inherit all characteristics of
parent (indentical), stop by removing stamen.
cross-pollination: pollen from stamen on one flower to pistil on another
flower,
plant off-spring--mix characteristics
pure-bread plants: plants allowed to self pollinate, used by Mendel
(in garden)
traits: characteristics passed from parent to offspring
Mendel's Experiment:
7 characteristics- seed shape, seed color, pod color,
flower position, plant
height, seat coat color, pod shape
1st experiment: cross short & tall (seeds planted-grew)
P1= parent
generation tall X short
F1= 1st
fillial generation tall X tall
F2= 2nd
fillial generation tall, tall, tall, short (3:1
ratio)
Three Hypothesis:
1. (Tall plants crossed w/short plants produced an F1 generation of
tall plants,
but short plants appeared again in the F2 generation.
Thus, some influence
within plant must control height)
***Inherited traits are controlled by a factor (genes), which occur
in pairs
2. (The tall plants must contain a factor for their tallness, but they
must
also contain a factor for shortness since it appeared
in the F2 generation)
***Principle of dominance and recessiveness: one factor(gene) in a
pair may
mask the other, or prevent it from having affect
3. (A recessive gene in a hybrid is not changed by the presence of
a
dominant gene)
***Law of Segregation: A pair of genes is segregated of seperated
dominance-there when present, masks recessive
recessive-trait masked when dominatn present
genotype- shows genes present
phenotype- effect caused in an organism
homozygous- paired genes are indenticle (TT) or (tt)
heterozygous-paired genes are not identicle (Tt)
hybrid- organism produced by crossing parents w/ different traits
alleles- different forms of a gene (T-tall, t-short)
gametes- type of reproductive cell
punnet square- special chart used tp predict possible results of gene
pairing
and probibility of each pairing
reproduction- combinationof male and female characteristics
sexual- combination of male and female parents
fertilization- when sperm and egg unite
zygote- fertilized egg
sperm & egg- reproductive cells
chromosomes- carries genetic information
meiosis- how reproductive cells are produced (formation of egg and
sperm)
involves diploid cells dividing twice to form haploid
cells(gametes-sperm/egg)
gametes unite, fertilization occurs, zygote formed
haploid- cells containing one set of chromosomes-sperm & egg
diploid- cells containing two sets of chromosomes- somatic (body) cells
chromosomes: in every living organism, rodlike structure, participate
in meiosis
to pass heredity, contains genes(DNA)-specific
nucleotide sequence,
matching pairs, 2 sets allow for
greater diversity
somatic cells- body cells, diploid
homologous chromosomes- matching pairs of chromosomes
Sexual Reproduction- 2 haploid form diploid, fertilization forms zygote,
zygote develops into offspring-carries
combined genes
Asexual Reproduction- offspring genetically indentical to parent, new
cells
produced by mitosis(# chrom constant),
diploid cell becomes 2 diploid cells
ex. budding, bionary fission,
vegatative reproduction, fragmentation
Kariotype- chromosomes photographed and cut out, match homologous pairs,
put on kariotype. able to determine
male or female, if all chrom are there,
pieces missing, or additional
(genetic disorders)
Meiosis I:
Pre-Prophase- chromosomes replicate (4N cell-not visible)
Prophase I- chromosomes shorten & become visible
chromosomes seek homologus pair (have same traits)
homologous pairs form tetrad (4)-chromatids(indiviual strand)
crossing over occurs-piece changes place(exchange of genetic info)
Metaphase I- tetrads line up at center (equator)
centromeres attatch to spindle fibers
Anaphase I- chromatid pairs of tetrad pulled toward opposite polls
centromeres intact
Telephase I- cell divides into 2 smaller cells (daughter cells)
each daughter recieves homologous pair
daughter cells have diploid number (2N)
Meiosis II:
Prophase II- chromosomes still duplicated, become visible again
Metaphase II- chromatids pair align along equator, attatch to spindle
fiber
centromeres break apart
Anaphase II- chromosomes seperated
move to opposite polls
Telephase II- single set chromosomes in 4 daughter cells
gametes-haploid (N)
genes code for same thing but not neccessarily same trait-
located at equivalent places (locus)
selective breeding- for better food (new crops)
Degrees of Dominance:
1. incomplete dominance- dominant unable to make recessive trait completely
result->complete blending of trait
(some dom., some recess., some blend)
ex. Brown, Palamino, White horses
2. codominance- dominant unable to maske recessice
result-> both show up
ex. red, roan, white haired cattle
3. multiple alleles
ex. A, B, AB, O blood types
4. simple dominance- dominant always masks recessive (2 alleles)
Human Heredity:
1. 1890- cells observed in males/females identical except one pair
autosomes- same in male/female (chrom 1-22); paired
sex chromosomes- dissimilar (chrom 23); mismatched
-same females "XX"; different
males "XY"
- 50% male or female
- "Y" chromosome- smaller, hookshaped,
carries traits for maleness
- can't developed by itself ("X" can)
- males determine sex
- "X" carries several traits
2. 1902- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance-Theodore Boveri, Sutton
-genes located on chromosomes
(hypothesis)
3. 1910- Thomas Hunt Morgan substanciated hypothesis (fruit fly experiment)
-crossed male-white eyed female
with red eyes
- crossed F1-> got 1:2:1 ratio
- all with recessive trait (white
eyes) were male
- male likely to show recessive(only
need 1"r"because"Y"doesn't carry)
nondisjunction- meiosis does not occur properly, causes genetic disorders,
can affect autosomal & sex
cells
Turner Syndrome- most some disease with sex cell
45 X, slight mental retardation,
dwarfness, sterile
Klinefelter syndrome- 47XXY, make w/female qualities, sterile
sex-linked- color blindness, hemophylla (blood can't clot)
sex-influenced trait- baldness Bb-men blad, women normal
3 methods to detect genetic disorders:
1. amniocentesis- long needle removing amniotic fluid
from womb,
contains
embriotic cells
2. chronic villi sampling- cells removed from placenta
3. ultra sound- see image of baby, measure development
& growth
DNA Structure (CH.15)
chromosomes contain 6 billion nucleotide pairs
gene-segement of DNA that codes for a particular trait (100,000 in
each chrom)
DNA stores info:
1. must duplicate easily
2. polmer- chains repeating
3. nucleotide- what makes up polmer
Nucleotide:
1. 5 carbon sugar (deoxiribose)
2. a phosphate group (PO4)
3. nitrogenous bases (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine)
complementary halves
Adenine & Guanine are purines
Cytosine & Thymine are pyrimidines
Watson& Crickcredited with identifying double helix structure
weak hydrogen bond attatches bases
bonding created double helix to put lots of info in small space
DNA Synthesis (Replication):
1. unzip DNA- seperate strands
2. one strand serves as a templet
3. enzyme "DNA Polymerase" causes seperation
4. enzyme moves along to read genetic code
5. copy which can leave nuclues is RNA (goes to Ribosome for protein
synthesis)
1. 3 letters group for particular
amino acids
2. chain of amino acids= protein
3. protein codes for trait
Protein Synthesis:
1. production of mRNA (by seperation of DNA)
1. DNA serves as a template (set of patterns)
2. complementary RNA nucleotides assemble
(don't copy entire structure-start
and stop codens in base sequence)
3. transcription(make copy of DNA in nucleus)
2. mRNA goes to ribosomes
1. translation-interpreting code to produce chain of Amino
Acids
2. codons-groups of three letters, code for Amino Acids
(20)
3. tRNA-anticodon sequence tells tRNA which amino acid needed fromcytoplasm
1.moves through cytoplasm-finds amino acid-conds-brings
back
ex. DNA: CCT
GCT TGT
GTG GAA
mRNA: GGA
CGA ACA
CAC
CUU
tRNA: CCU
GCU TCT
GTG
GAA
amino glycine
arginine threonine histidine
leucine
Genetic Engineering:
Luther Burbank-research with plants, 250 plant varieties, made people
aware
selective breeding-been around for a long time, get rid of bad characteristics,
perpetuate good, not guarenteed
to get traits (recessive), inbreeding
occurs, lose trait from gene pool,
undesirable traits show up, takes long
time, useful but slow and chancy.
hybridization- perpetuate good characteristics, takes 2 related species
to
produce new type, needs to be
a seen trait (mutations favorable)->
trait mutigenisis
ex. seedless orange, hairless
mice
Biotechnology: developed to speed up, reduce problems & change
uses of
genetic engineering, differ->
direct altering of genetic code, takes DNA
strand, cut & splice in new,
to rewrite-> restrictive enzymes are proteins
that cut DNA at specific places,
new piece glued in w/ DNA ligese
recombinant DNA- strand that has new genes inserted in
plasmid-sections of bacteria to get DNA in cell, often
used as a vector to
transefer
new DNA
transgenic- genetically altered (have recombinant DNA)
1980s- scientists successful in bacteria, plants, animals
Transgenic bacteria:
ex. insulin, human growth hormone, eats oil, protect plant
from frost,
protect roors, cleans air, vaccine
Transgenic plants:
ex. 50 different- soy, rice, alfalfa, corn
ex. plants tolerant to heat & cold, resist salt content
in soil, more nutritious,
less fertilizer, produce chemicals
of intrest to humans, glowing plants
Transgenic animals:
moral rights issues-gene farming
foreign genes infected into egg before fertilization
ex. larger fish, cows-milk with human protein, pigs, rabbits,
sheep
reasons- cures for many dieases
goals: early intervention/ prevention of genetic diseases
Human Genome Project:
goals- 1. map human chromosomes (genes, traits lie)
2. determines 3 billion bases in human genome
Kingdom Prokaryote or Moneran or Bacteria
Prokaryotae- no nuclear membrane, no nucleus
living cell w/o membrane bound organells
only bacteria, single cell
Capsule- protection from antibodies, white bloodcells
Cell Wall- protection, less rigid than plant, made of peptodpglycan
Cell Membrane- regulates what goes in/ out of cell
Mesosome- folding of membrane (ripple)
increases surface area for chemical reactions
Cytoplasm
Ribocomes- protein synthesis(1000s)
DNA- single strand of chromosome
plasimid- circular DNA structure
vector to carry new chromosomes
reproduction in unfavorable conditions
fimbriae- short, hairlike projection
attachment points
flagellum(a)- pair extending from body
aid in movement
composed of flagellin protein
found-> everywhere
simplest & most numerous organism
3 shapes: shere- Coccus: monococcus, diplococcus, streptococcus, staphylococcus
rod- Bacillus: monobacillus, diplobacillus, streptobacillus
spiral- Spirillum
More good than Bad: understand to find cures, in biotech, solve enviro
prob,
digestion, control growth
Endospore- portion of bacterium; reproductivfe method for bad consitions
Energy source:
1. obligate aerobes- require O2, cellular respiration
2. facultative anaerobes- either presence or absence of
O2
anaerobic respiration or fermentation
3. obligate anaerobes- only fermination(different organic
compunds)
Heterotrophic-most bacteria, depend on others for food
1. saprobes-dead plants/animals,don't cause diease, release
digestive enzymes
to absorb
2. parasites- living organisms, cause disease, absorb
directly
Autotrophic- makes own food
1. photosynthetic- uses light energy
2. kemosynthetic- uses/breaks down chemicals
Reproduction:
asexual- Bionary Fission (chrom divided-splits in half)-
identical daughter
conditions affect rate (15-20 min) temp, food, moisture, space
sexual- conjugation-protein bridge between 2 bacterium-exchange
increases genetic diversity
Bacterial Growth Curve:
1. Lag Phase- bacteria starts to grow, familiarize with environment
2. Exponential Growth Phase- rapid growth, birth exceeds death
3. Stationary Phase- birth/death equal rate
4. Death Phase- more death than birth
Archaebacteria:live in extreme environments
1. methanogens- produce methane, found bottom of marshes, bogs, intestines
2. halophiles- saltloving bacteria, Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake
3. thermo(acid)ophiles- hot acidic environment, hot sulfur springs
Eubacteria: true bacteria, largest group
1. cyanobacteria (blue/green algae)- carry on photosynthesis (Ch.A)
other colored pigments present,
Red Sea
2. Schizophyta- small group, gram positive
3. Prochlorobacteria- contains Ch. A/B, chloroplasts of plants
Hans Christian Gram- developed staining test
cell wall stains pink or purple
gram positive- purple(thick cell wall)-treated w/ antibiotics
gram negative- pink(thin cell wall)- cant be treated w/ antibiotics
looks at cell wall-in Eubacteria ONLY
Uses of Bacteria:
Genetic Engineering:
1. cleaning up oil spills
2. insilin production
3. using as vector
Industry:
1. producing drugs & chemicals
2. clean up water supply
Medicines
Environmental:
1. environmental impacts
2. break down dead tissue
Food: yogurt, cheese, sour cream, buttermilk
Symbiotic relationships:
1. breaks down cellulose
2. Nitrogen Fixation
Koch's Postulates:set procedure to identify what bacteria causes disease
-Robert Koch-> 1st to say bacteria causes disease
1. The suspected disease causing organism should always
be found in animals
with the disease.
2. The organism must be isolated and grown in pure culture.
3. Organisms from pure culture placed in healthy animal
must cause disease
4. Organism must be isolated and grown again and be the
same organism.
Germ Theory->Louis Pasteur
1. harm body by being so numerous they interfere w/normal
function
2. distroy body cells & tissues
3. produce poisons
pathogens-> harmful bacteria
To control:
1. Sir Alexander Fleming-developed Penicillin(antibiotic)->derivitive
of mold
penicillin interferes with formation
of cell wall
2. vaccines
3. hygene-wash hands, etc.
4. refrigeration/freezing-slow down growth
5. pasturization-heat to kill
6. sterilization/boiling-heat&pressure/just heat(121C,
10-40min w/pressure)
7. drying foods-removing moisture (needs it to live)
8. canning- heating glass @ high temp
9. adding preservatives-changes conditions
10. disinfectants
Bacterial Infections Spread by:
1. insects
2. coughing/sneezing->air borne droplets
3. shaking hands->direct contact
4. sexual contact
5. contaiminated water
6. food
Virus
1.T-4 bacteriophage attacks bacteria
2.literally means poison
3. not bacteria, smaller (1 billionth of meter -nanometer)
4. not in any kingdom, classified by self
5. do not have characteristics of living organisms (reproduce, DNA)
6. noncellular material
7. difficult to control
8. requires electron microscope to barely see
9. capsid- outside covering, made of protein (host cell), surround
Nucleic Acid
10. Nucleic Acid- DNA/RNA, hundreds of genes
11. neck- has tube to pass DNA into bacteria "sheath"
12. tail fibers- aid in attatchment
13. infect all kingdoms
Controlling Virus:
1. vaccine-weaked virus injected into body and antibodies produced
to fight it
Spread Virus:
1. same way as bacteria (cough, sneeze, etc.)
Time Line:
1. 1884: Louis Pasteur-suggest something smaller than bacteria to cause
disease
(used virus to describe)
2. 1892: Ivanowsky- set up filter so no bacteria sould pass through,
but
something
did (virus)
3. 1935- Wendle Stanley- chemically isolate tobacco mosaic virus (elec.
micro)
4. 1950s- field of virology takes off
Saulk-vaccine for Pollio
Edward Gener- developed 1st vaccine for small pox from milk
maids
Virus Shapes:
1. phage- many sided
2. rod
3. spherical- HIV(retrovirus)
4. spiral- E Boli
5. oval
Lytic Cycle:
1. attatchment stage- attatch by using tail fibers, capsid combines
with receptor
2. penetration- viral DNA enters host
3. biosynthesis- viral components synthesized (made)
4. maturation- assemble viral components (virons), release enzyme to
break
cell wall
5. release- cell wall bursts & new viruses leave host cell
Lysogenic Cycle:
1. attatchment- same
2. penetration- same
3. integration- virus' DNA splices into host cell DNA and are passed
on when
bacteria reproduce (over years)
4. Biosynthesis- something triggers viral parts to synthesize (make
take yrs)
5. maturation- same
6. release- same
Protista Kingdom (CH. 25)
Characteristics:
1. 115,000 species
2. eukaryotic
3. diversity: uni/multicellular, hetero/autotrophic, a/sexual
reproduction,
aquatic/terrestrial, solitary/colonial
4. in this kingdom because don't fit anywhere else
Animal-like (Protozoa)
1. single-celled
2. some are colonial(exist together in group)
3. heterotrophic
a. engulf
food
b. absorb
food through cell membrane
4. Sarcodine
a. movement->false
foot(pseudopod)
b. some
have rigid coating (CaCO3)
c. movement
of cytoplasm(cytoplasmic streaming) form pseudopods
d. ex.
radiolarian, heliozoan, foraminifera
e. ex.
amoeba
1. found in fresh H2O
2. engulfs prey (surrounds with pseudopods)-phagocytosis
3. preys on paramecium, bacteria, smaller animals
4. responsible for disease (amoebic dysintary)
5. reproduce by bionary fission/budding
6. measured w/millimeters
5. Ciliophora (Ciliate)
a. movement
by cillia
b. reproduce
by bionary fission or sexual conjuagation
c. ex.
Paramecium
1. single cell
2. heterotrophic- absorb food through cell membrane->
oral groove-> gullet-> food vacuole
3. cillia all over body(pass food to oral groove)
4. macronucleus- regulates cell activities (disinigrates during conj)
5. micronucleus- reproduction, hereditary info
6. waste removed through anal pore
7. lysosomes provide digestive enyzmes
8. feeds on bacteria
9. contractile vacuole-regulates water in cell
d. ex.
Stentor
1. cillia on large end of funnel-oral groove, gullet
2. turquois green/blue
3. multiple nuclei
4. pellicle- cell membrane foldings to give rigid outer structure
6. Zoomastigina (Zooflagelates)
a. movement
by flagella
b. ex.
paranema
1. free-living
2. flagella will pull organism along
c. ex.
Trypanosoma gambiense
1. parasitic
2. cause African sleeping sickness
3. tse-tse fly passes on
d. some
harmful to humans
e. ex.
Trichonympha
1. symbiotic
2. lives in gut of a termite
3. helps in digestion of wood
f. absorb
food through cell membrane
g. fresh
H2O lakes, pond
7. Sporozoans
a. nonmotile
b. parasitic
c. characterized
by complex life cycle
d. ex.
plasmodium vivax
1. causes malaria in humans
2. spread by mosquitos(females-Anopheles-are the ones to pass on)
3. mosquito bites human, mosquito injest blood/plasmodian cells,
cells develop rapidly, bits human, plasmodium infects liver cells,
liver cells burst-release plasmodium cells, to red blood cells will
burst at intervals of 48-72h to release toxin, can kill you
4. best way to treat is to eliminate breeding ground
Plant-Like (Algae)
1. chloroplasts
2. cell wall, food
3. most unicellular/some multicellular
4. some motile/some not
5. Euglenophyta (Euglenoids)
a. ex. Euglena
1. both heterotrophic/autotrophic
2. fresh/pond water
3. contains chloroplasts (10-20)
4. eyespot (stigma)-detects light
6. Chryopytha (Golden Brown Algae)
a. ex. Diatoms
1. have shell (valves-silica-fit together)
2. have chloroplasts
3. when die-cells accumulate on ocean floor
1. Diatomacious Earth-mined, food for aquatic animals
7. Dinophlagelates (Pyrophta)-Fire Algae
a. have ability to glow (bioluminesecense)
b. food
for aquatic animals-deadly to organisms in H2O
8. Chlorophyta (Green Algae)
a. ex. spirogyra, volvox, chlamydomonas
b. pyrenoid-charbohydrate
synthesis
9. Phaeophyta (Brown Algae)
a. common
seaweed
b. ex.
kelp, sargassum
c. has
chlorophyll & caritine (brown color)
d. mostly
ocean, some fresh, land
e. cell
wall contains agar.
10. Rhodophyta (Red Algae)
a. cell
wall contains agar
b. ex.
carrageenan
Fungus-Like
1. similar to fungus-difference ameoboid stage-looks like
ameoboid
2. heterotrophic-saprobes, decomposers/some parasitic
3. Myxomycota
a. colonial
b. single
celled
c.
many neucli
d. resemble
giant ameoba
e. feed
on organic matter-forest floor
f. all
different colors
g. ex.
plasmodium-combination of ameoba like
4. Acrasiomycota
a. similar
to above but multicellular
b. ex.
plasmodium
5. Oomycota
a. ex.
water mold, downy mildew(plant parasite-potatoe blight)
b. finely
branched filamentous
Animal Kingdom (CH. 28/29)
1 million species--30 phylum
1.) porifera (sponges)-5,000
2.) cnidaria (coelenterates)-11,000
3.) worms-platyhelminthers(flat)\
nematodes(round) -- 26,000
annelids (segmented) /
4.) mollusks-80,000
5.) Arthropods-826,000
6.) Echinoderms-5,000
7.) Chordates-47,000
zoology-branch of study of animals
In Order to Survive an animal must:
1. feed
2. respire (take in & exchange gases w/surrounding environments)
3. circulate oxygen & nutrients
4. eliminate waste
5. respond to environmental conditions
6. reproduce
7. move from one place to another
2 main groups: Invertebrates-no backbones
Vertebrates- backbones
Symmetry: produce = portions when cutting
1. asymmetrical-no way to cut to produce equal halves
2. spherical-volvox, sphere shaped organism; many ways to cut equally
3. radial- starfish, hydra
4. bilateral- organism will vary from top to bottom
a. dorsal-upper
side or back of animal
b. ventral-
lower side or belly
c. anterior
end (postion)-front or head end
d. posterior
end (position)- rear or tail end
Animal:a multi-cellular organism that must obtain food from their environment.
Most have nervous/muscular systems that
allow them to move. Must reproduce
sexually. Some of the simpler forms also reproduce asexually.
In some animals, the young have the basic features of
the adult. But in others, the young are
different from the adult. In these cases, the young are known
as larve, which undergo a series of developmental
changes that produce the adult form.
Sponge: cellular layer of organization-simplest multicellular
animal
1. spicules-skeletal structure, gives shape, made of CaCO3, silica,
spongen
classified by spicule make-up, amoeboid cells make spicules
2. amoeboid cells-digest & transport nutrients, produce sex cells,
middle layer
3. epidermal cells-flat, irregularly shaped, thin, protection, has
pores
4. pores- water enters sponge
5. collar cells- have flagellum, stirs H20 to eliminate water, collect
food part.
6. sessile filter feeder- attatched to bottom, filters out food
7. osculum- water exit through hole in top, gets rid of waste.
8. diffusion allows water to all layers
9. reproduction-sexual & asexual
sexual-collar cells change into
gametes, exit through osculum, sperm
through
pore of another spong & find egg, develops into free-swimming
larve
asexual-budding(group of cells
divide rapidly, break off)
10. regeneration-cut & put back in water (develop into whole)
11. all aquatic(both fresh & salt H20)
fresh reproduce using gemmules-(spores)
used with bad conditions
12. uses: medicine (produce chemicals for protection-close pores)
cures for lukemia, viruses, arthritis
cleaning
study for regeneration ability
13. have simple nervous system
Cilinerates:tissue layer of organization
1. most are marine
2. 2 body forms-polyp(up)&medusa(down)
3. radial symmetry
4. ectoderm(epidermal layer)-outer layer,contains contractile fibers(movement)
5. mesoglea-middle layer, protein, jelly-like layer
6. gastrodermos(endoderm)-digestion, circulation of nutrients
7. nematocyst-harpoon in cnidocite-stinging cell, in epidermal cell,
catch food
8. respiration-use H20
9. removal of waste-through mouth (sac body plan)
10. nerve net-1st nervous system, no brain
11. tentacles- coordination of movement, food gatherers
Platyhelminthes (Flat Worms): organ level of organization
1. ex. Spanish Dancer
2. sophisticated muscle system
3. have definite head & tail regions
4. body has 3 layers of tissue (organ & organ systems)
epidermis, mesoderm, gastrodermous
5. digestive, excritory, muscular, nervous, & reproductive systems
present
6. 3 classes:
1. Turbellaria->free-living flatworms
2. Trematoda-> parasitic flukes
3. Cestoda-> parasitic tapeworms
7. Class Turbellaria
1.ex. planaria (free-living flat
worms)
found in fresh water
layer of cillia on ventral surface
size 5-25 mm......grey/brown/black
invertibrate
only muscular system
able to exchange gases-doesn't need circulatory, respiratory
digestive system-(incomplete system) mouth, pharynx, intestine
pulls food into cavity, diffusion
excretory system- flame cell-removes excess water
canals branch to flame cells
nervous system-ladder type, small brain, 2 longitudinal nerve cords
transverse nerves connect
reproductive- sexual->hermaphroditic-produce both ovaries&testis
asexual-> regeneration
8. Class Trematoda
1. 1 cm long
2. live in blood vessels of human
intestine
3. parasitic (don't kill host)
4. human waste contains eggs,
larve eats snail, full grown fluke bores into
human
foot, gets into blood stream
5. mostly S.E. Asia
9. Class Cestoda
1. parasitic flat-worm
2. ex. Beef Tapeworms
4-9meters long, inch in width
live in wall of human intestine
scolex-head (has hooks & suckers)
no digestive system because human does it
segment breaks off(contains eggs)-proglottid(end bigger/mature)
enter in to pig(cyst)-human eats, goes into human intestine
3. no muscle, nervous system
4. no cephalization-head region
with sense organs
Nematoda(Round Worms): organ level of organization
1. shape-long, cilindrical
2. bilateral symmetry
3. 1mm-1m length (small most common)
4. found in soil(benificial), inside animals&plants (parasites),
all environments
5. harmless, free-living, some parasites
6. ex. Ascarias-parasite of human intestine
7. digestive system-two openings(mouth&anus)connected by intestine-complete
8. no circulatory, respiratory-thin enough for diffusion
9. reproductive system-well developed, extensive
10. muscle syste-longitudinal
11. simple nervous system
12. seperate sexes
13. tube-within-a tube body plan
14. pseudocoelum-paritial development, body cavity
Annelid (Segmented): organ level of organization
1. ex. leech, earthworm, sandmason worm, ragworm
2. bodies divided internally & externally
3. found land, fresh&salt water
4. most free-living, some paarasitic
5. 1/2-3meters in length
6. bilateral symmetry
7. ex. Earthworm
longitudinal & circular muscles(move
segments closer/farther apart)
simplest invertibrate w/closed
circulatory system
open-blood enters sinus cavity, filters
through tissues
prob.-inefficient, inconsistent, slow movement
closed-blood always in veins&heart
5 hearts, dorsal & ventral
blood vessel
body cavity (tube-within-a-tube)coelom
structures surround intestine
excretory organ called nephridium(a)
9. digestive system
mouth (flap of skin prostomeum)->pharynx(pulls in food)-> esophagus->
crop(stores food)->gizzard(grind food into smaller pieces)->
intestine(organic matter absorbed)->anus(solid waste exit)
10. closed circulatory system
dorsal & ventral blood vessels, aortic arches(heart)
smaller vessels absorb nutrients
& distribute
hearts->ventral vessel->dorsal
vessel->hearts
11. Respiratory System
exchange gasses through skin
gasses disolved in mucus->diffusion
12. Excretory System
liquid waste removed by nephridium(a)
connects outside to inside
13. true coelum
14. Nervous Sytem
brain->2 nerve cords->smaller
ganglion(a)
carries impulses from different
parts to brain
15. Muscular System
longitudinal-length
circular- around body
setae- bristles; entend out from body wall as lengthens, as
contract, grips
4pair per segment
16. Reproduction
sexual- pair up, stored in seminal
vessicles, eggs fertilized, clitellum
produces cover-> leaves body
hermaphroditic-both male and femals
gametes produced
Molluska (Mollusks):
1. means soft body
2. ex. clams, snails, squid, octapus, slug
3. found most salt H2O, some fresh, land
4. 1mm-59ft
5. 3 classes: Bivalvia- 2 shells (ex. clams, fresh H2O muscles)
Gastropoda- 1 shell
(ex. snails, slugs)
Cephalopoda- little
or no shell (ex. squid-internal skel-pen, octapus)
6. Bivalvia
1. sexes are seperate
2. filter feeders-incurrent siphon->gills(trap
food)->cillia to lapial palps->
mouth->digestive
system->excurrent siphon(H2O)
3. open circulatory system
4. foot- large muscular structure
inside, for movement, digging
5. mantle-produces shell, covers
visceral mass, forms incurrent/excurrent
7. Gastropoda
1. marine, some fresh, land
2. largest group of Mollusks
3. breath=fresh H2O-gills; land-lungs
4. most have open circulatory
system
8. Cephelopoda
1. little or no shell
2. fast moving predetor
3. closed circulatory system
4. foot- developed into tentacles
5. eye-structures (similar to
humans)
6. well developed nervous system-
brain, nerve cords, nerve ganglia
7. siphon (funnel)-excurrent,
shoot to move fast
8. change colors- chromataphores
9. radula- tough toung to scrape
food
Arthropods:
1. largest phylum
2. found everywhere
3. all arthrodops have-
1. bilateral symmetry
2. pairs of jointed appendages (hinges for movement)
3. exoskeleton made of chitin (suit of armor)
1. hard protective outer skeleton
2. must shed (molt) when growth
occurs
3. light weight
4. inside is soft body->no internal
skeleton
5. keeps from drying out
4. body segmentation
1. head, throax, abdomen (3 regions)
5. well-developed nervous system
1. brain, nerve cords & ganglia
2. sensory organs
6. open circulatory system
1. dorsal tubluar heart->arteries
7. well organized muscles
8. specialized mouth parts
9. specialized sensory organs
2. complete metamorphasis (developmental)
1. 4 steps (egg, larve, pupa, adult)
2. ex. caterpillar
3. incomplete metamorhasis(developmental)
1. 3 steps (egg, nymph, adult)
2. nymph-miniture adult w/o wings, reproductive structures
3. ex. grasshopper
4. Class Crustacea
1. ex.lobster,sow bugs,crayfish,crabs(hermit,fiddler,ghost),shrimp,water
flea
2. hermit crabs don't produce own shell (use mollusk shell)
3. 2 pairs of antennae
4. head & thorax fused to make cephalothorax
5. Class Chilopoda
1. ex. centipede
2. 1 pair of legs per segment (30-35 pairs)
3. 1 pair of antenna
4. poisonous claws (scavengers)
6. Class Diplopoda
1. ex. milipede
2. 2 pairs of legs per segment
3. 1 pair of antenna
4. no poisonous claws (decomposers)
5. protection- curl into a ball, glands to release smell
7. Class Insecta
1. most successful, largest class
2. flying, wider range, escape preditors, new areas
3. mouth parts to capture, tear apart prey
4. high reproductive rate (millions of offspring during
year)
5. short life span
6. small size (don't need large area to live)
7. 1 pair antenna
8. 1 pair compound eyes (most developed-multiple lenses-multiple
images)
9. head, thorax, abdomen
10. 3 pair walking legs (thorax)
11. wings on thorax
12. respiratory-> trachea(tubes take in 02, disperse to
all parts of body)
1. connects inside to outside
2. spiracles-holes on abdomen,
connected to trachea
13. malpighian tublues- excretory system, filter nitrogenous
waste from
blood-> make into uric acid (paste)
to excrete into intestine-> anus
Characteristic
Crayfish
Grasshopper
Comp of skeleton
chitin-thick,rigid
chitin
body region
2=cepholothorax,abdomen 3=head,thorax,abdomen
Sense Organs:
Antenna
2 pair=antenna,antennule 1 pair=
antenna
Eyes
pair of compound eyes
pair of compound, 3 simple
Hearing Organ
hair used for hearing
typanum
Locomotion Organ:
Legs
4pairs walking, 1pair claws 2pairs
walking,1 jumping
Wings
none
2pairs(fore&hind)
Abdomen:
# segments
7 segments
10 segments
Appendages 6pair
swimmerets, uropod/telson none
Post. Segment
uropod/telson, swimmerets
ovipositor
Respiratory Struct
gills
spiracle, trachea
circulatory syst
open, 1 big heart
open, series of hearts
digestive syts complete-mouth,E,S,I,A
complete-MECG,Caecum,SIA
excretory syst
liquid wate-green glands malphigian tubules-Uric
Acid
nervous syst
brain, ventral nerve, ganglia brain, ventral nerve, ganglia
respiratory syst 2 rows of
gills
spiracles-trachea
exoskeleton--molt->growth->hardens->no growth
Echinoderms:
1. ex. starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber, sand dollars, feather star
2. marine organisms-live on ocean floor(mainly)
3. most able to move
4. radial symmetry (larve bilateral)
5. well-developed coelom
6. internal skeleton (CaCO3)
7. starfish:
1. 5-20 arms
2. range of colors
3. spines
4. regenerate w/part of central disk present
5. feed on bivalves
6. water vascular surface- sieve plate->stone canal->ring
canal->radial
canal->tube feet->ambulacral groove
1. movement
2. feeding
7. aboral-dorsal, oral-ventral
8. cardiac stomach--thrown out
9. pyloric stomach--digestion
10. spines
11. eyespot-react light/dark, on each arm
12. central disk-round portion legs come out from
13. ambulacral groove-
14. tube feet- line groove, water pressure to activate
to open clams
15. mouth- where all ambulacral grooves meet
Phylum Chordata (Chordates): cord on dorsal surface
1. Vertebrates:
1. most numerour & complex cordates
2. spinal column made up of vertebrae(backbone) which
allows for flexibility/move
3. anterior part of nerve cord enlarged to form brain
4. body divided into head, neck, and trunk
5. jointed internal skeleton
6. 2 pairs of appendages
7. heart w/2-4 chambers
8. circulatory system closed & blood contains hemoglobin-carries
O2
9. large body cavity (coelom) containing organs of digestion,
excretion, reproduction,
heart, lungs
10. repiration occurs in gills(aquatic) or lungs (land)
11. skin made of at least two layers- dermis & epidermis
12. skin often forms other structures such as glands,
scales, feathers, hair, nails,
claws, horns, hoofs, etc
2. Class Agnatha-Jawless Fish(Lamprey, Hagfish)
1. most primitive vertebrates
2. long snake-like bodies, smooth skin-no scales
3. don't have paired fins
4. jaw not moveable/ no jaw
5. notochord persists through life
6. sperate sexes
7. external fertilization
8. most lamprey--parasites of fresh/salt
9. hagfish feed on dead fish, worms, etc. (tentacles surrouns
mouth)
10. no eyes
11. 6 hearts
3. Class Chondrichthyes-Cartilaginous Fish
1. ex. sharks, rays, skates
2. skeleton made entirely of cartilage
3. moveable upper & lower jaw
4. circulatory system- 2 chamber heart
5. reproduction- internal
6. respiration- H2O flows through mouth, over gills, out
gill slits
7. sense organs- well developed, vibrations, smell, chemoreceptor
4. Class Osteichthyes-Bony Fish
1. bony skeleton
2. paired fins
3. protective over-lapping scales
4. circulatory system-2 chamber heart
5. respiratory system-blood O2 in gills
6. reproductive system- mostly external, fertilization
by spawning large # of eggs
5. Class Amphibia-Amphibians
1. Defining characteristics:
1. usually tetrapods(have 4 limbs)
2. smooth moist skin
3. usually lungs in adult
4. 3-chambered heart--closed circulatory
system
5. metamorphosis
6. estivation-period of dormancy
during summer time(not enough H2O, too hot)
2. Differences from bony fish
1. tongue for catching prey(only
frog)-sticky, attatched to top of mouth
2. eyelids for keeping eyes moist
3. ears adapted to picking up
sound waves (tympanum in frog)
4. voice producing larynx
5. brain is larger than fish's
6. cerebral cortex more developed
3. skin
1. smooth and nonscaly
2. lept moist by numerous mucus
glands
3. helps with water balence, respiration,
and temperature regulation on land
4. smooth moist skin means they
stay closer to water so they don't dry out
5. glands in skin secrete poisons
so that they are distasteful to eat(for protection)
4. Breathing
1. usually have lungs (relatively
small, simple, sac-like)
2. lungs supplemented by exchange
of gasses across porous skin(during torpor)
3. nares, glottis, lungs
5. Circulatory System
1. double loop circulatory systems
is when a 3 chambered heart pumps blood before and after it
has gone
to lungs
2. oxygenated blood mixed with
deoxygenated blood in single ventricle (lower chamber)
3. one ventricle, two atria
6. on both land and water
7. most return to H2O for reproduction
8. reproduction
1. shed eggs & sperm in water,
external fertilization occurs in H2O
2. jelly coat, not shell, protects
egg
3. after hatching, tadpoles grow
and feed, metamorphasis, adult breathes air
4. tadpole-aquatic larva with
gills
9. Body temperature
1. ectothermic--cold blooded
2. in winter, inactive...enter
torpor(condition of inactivity or insensibility
10. salamander & newt
1. elongated body, long tail,
2 pairs of legs,
2. locomote like fish with side
to side sinusoidal movements (S-shaped)
3. carnivorous(small invertibrates)
4. internal fertilization(male
produces spermatophore which is picked up by cloaca)
(eggs
laid in water or on land depending on species)
5. cloaca--common recepticle for
urinary, digestive, and genital canals
11. Frogs & Toads
1. tailless, head&trunk fused,
hindlegs for jumping, numerous mucles in limbs and trunk
2. Frog-smooth skin, long legs,
live in or near H2O
3. Toad-stout body, warty skin,
live in dark/damp place away from H2O
12. Life Cycle:(average life 5-6 yrs)
1. rain triggers breeding
2. males call to attract females/define
territory
3. eggs spawned
4. tadpoles-herbivores
5. legs develop (10 weeks)
6. tail disappears
7. gills disappear-carnivore on
land
13. Nervous System
1. central (brain, spinal cord)
& periferal (nerves extending from them) nervous system
2. Brain has 5 divisions
1. olfactory
lobes-smell
2. optic
lobes- sight
3. ceribrum-sensory,
voluntary muscle movement, ceribrum cortex
4. ceribellum-
cordinate movement
5. madula-
involuntary action, madula oblungada--connects brain to spinal cord
6. Class Reptilia
1. General Characterisitics
1. skin dry and covered w/scales--waterproof
covering protects from excessive H2O loss, preditor
2. except snake, all have two
pairs of legs--most 5 clawed toes,legs for climbing,running, etc
3. most--3 chambered hearts(2
atria, 1 ventricle)-mixing of O2 & deO2 blood in heart
increases
amount O2 carried to body cells
crocodiles
& alligators have 4 chambered heart
4. well developed lungs protected
by rib cage
5. nitrogenous was excreted as
uric acid, so urine is semisolid waste
2. only four orders of living
1. The Tuatara (only member of
1st order)
1. lizzard-like
animal found only in New Zealand
2. Crocodiles & Alligators
1. largest
living reptiles
2. found
in lakes, swamps, rivers in tropical regions all over world
3. Turtles
1. found
on land, fresh H2O, salt H2O
2. land
dwelling called tortoise
4. Lizards & Snakes
1. lizzards
found in desserts, forests, H2O
2. snakes
found in ground, trees, fresh H2O, salt H2O
3. abundant
in tropical areas
3. Feeding
1. herbivores-iguana(do not chew,
just swallow--have long digestive tracts)
2. carnivores-snakes(grab w/jaws
and swallow whole or birds crack shell in throat,swallow
liquid,
spit our shell)
4. Respiration
1. lungs (most 2, some snakes
1)
2. muscles surround ribs and expand
chest cavity in order to inhale and then collapse
3. some crocodiles have flaps
of skin that seperate that mouth from nasal passage
( ability to
breathe through nostrils while mouth is open)
4. special snakes have a tube
in the floor of mouth through which breathe
(don't
suffocate while swallowing prey--able to extend out of body while eating)
5. Internal Transport
1. well-developed double loop
circulatory system(one loop brings blood to and from lungs &
one brings
blood to and from rest of body)
2. developement of efficient lungs
necessitated the developement of a more efficient circulatory
6. Excretion
1. liquid watse-urine
7. Response
1. sense-organs well-developed(snakes
can't hear)
2. active during day have complex
eyes with photoreceptor(see color well)
3. snakes have a pair of special
organs on roof of mouth that aid in smell
4. tongue picks up molecules from
air and carries to mouth onto special organs
5. simple ears-external eardrum
to tympanum ans single bone conducts sound
6. snakes pick up vibrations in
ground through bones in skull
7. tortoises lack eardrum, but
thick path of skin on head serves same purpose
8. some able to gather heat info
from environment
9. snake able to detect heat from
animals it eats
10. pit vipers have heat-sensitive
pits on both sides of head
8. Movement
1. reptilian muscle and skeletal
sys more advanced than amphibian
2. legs w/ larger, stronger limbs--well-controlled
movement
3. snakes move by pressing large
ventral scales against ground, expand/contract muscles
around
ribs in waves,dig ventral scales into ground, push themselves forward
9. Reproduction
1. reptiale egg contributing factor
to success of animal on land
2. leathery outer shell protects
delicate tissues inside egg,pores in shell allow O2 and CO2 enter
3. lay eggs that hatch to resemble
small adults
4. internal fertilization
5. reproductive systems open in
cloaca
6. unable to determine sex from
outside
7. many females are oviparous,
which lay eggs that develop outside mother's body
7. Class Aves-Birds
1. only modern animal w/ feathers
1. contour feathers(flight)-attatched
to wings in overlapping way to produce a broad, flat
surface
which is benificial to flight
2. down feathers-isolation against
body heat loss
2. Endothermic-maintain constant, high body temp which
allows them to be constantly active
3. anatomical features allow birds to fly
1. forelimbs modified as wings
2. hollow,light bones laced w/air
cavities
3. beak replaces jaw w/teeth--(different
for different food)
4. slender neck connects head
to torso
5. enlarged brest bone w/keel
to which muscles are attached for flying
6. four-chambered heart
7. warm blooded
4. flight requires well developed sense organs and nervous
system
1. acute vision
2. excellent muscle reflexes
3. birds migrate and seek food
in seperate habitiats
5. Classification based on beak and foot type
1. birds of prey-notched beak
and sharp talons
2. shore bird-long, slender bills
and stilt like talons
3. wood pecker-sharp, chisel-like
bills and grasping feet
4. water-fowl-webbed toes and
broad bills
5. penguins-wings modified as
paddles
6. songbirds-perching feet
6. Distinguishing characteristics
1. feathers
2. hard-shelled egg
3. four-chambered heart
4. usually wings for flying
5. air sacs
6. endothermic
7. beak
7. Respiration
1. complete ventilation--incoming
air is carried past the lungs by a bronchus that takes it to a
set of
posterior air sacs, passes forwars through lungs into anterior air sacs,
expelled
8. Mating
1. males can father many offspring
because they continually produce sperm in great quantities
2. competition among males to
inseminate as many females as possible
3. females produce few eggs so
the competition among males and male choice by females is
called
sexual selection
4. male birds more showy because
it's female's choice
9. Reproduction
1. shelled egg frees birds from
need to reproduce in water and increases their adaptation to the
terrestrial
environment
2. birds incubate eggs and care
for their offspring after they hatch
8. Class Mammalia
1. Characterisitics
1. hair
2. endothermic,hemothermic(produce
heat metabolically and maintain constant internal temp
3. efficient repiratory and circulatory
sytems
1. O2
to muscles, double loop circulatory syst, four chambered heart
4. mammary glands(produce milk)
5. differenciated teeth
6. infant dependency
2. Classes of Mammals (by reproductive)
1. monotremes-lay eggs (ex. duckbill
platapus, spiny anteatter)
2. marsupials-mammals w/pouch(ex.kangaroo,
possum, koala)
1. young
develop in female, born, crawl intp pouch, attatched to nipples
3. placental-mammals that have
placenta
1. exchanges
between maternal & fetal blood
2. females
can move freely
3. acute
sense organs
4. enlarged
brain
5. long
dependency on parents
6. Orders
(based on locomotion and feeding)
1.Chiroptera--nocturnal bats
1. 2 layers of skin & connective tissue forming wings
2. night vision
2. Rodenta--largest order, rodents
1. have incisors that constantly grow
2. omniverous
3. Perissodactyla & Artiodactyla--hoofed animals (ex. horse, deer,
pig)
1. elongated limbs adapted for running in grasslands
2. herbivorous
4. Lagomorpha--like rodents (ex. rabbit, bear)
1. have 2 hind legs longer than front legs
5. Carnivora
1. legs adapted for running
2. well-developed sense of smell
3. some aquatic
6. Proboscidea (ex. elephant)
1. upper lip and nose elongated and muscularized to form trunk
7. Cetacea (ex. whales & dolphins)
1. no hair or fur
8. Primates
1. most live in trees
2. most eat fruit
3. freely moveable head
4. 5 digits with nails--thumb opposable
5. well developed head/brain