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| Stress |
�@ ��Emotional and somatic reponses:
1.Anxiety with autonomic arousal��threat
2.Depression��separation or loss
3.Psychological mechanisms that reduces the impact (1)Coping
strategies
(2)Mechanisms of defence
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2 ���B 73
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7 ���B 50
8 �Q�ѹ� 47
9 �M�t�������¦n 45
10 �h�� 45
11 �a�H�ͭ��f�Φ欰�����j���� 44
12 �h�� 40
�@ |
| Stress: Consequence |
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| Primitive & Mature Thinkings |
�@ 1.Non-dimensional & Global����Multidimensional�]�h�譱�^
2.Absolutistic & Moralistic����Relativistic &
Non-judgemental�]�۹�ʡ^
3.Invariant����Variable�]�ܰʩʡ^
4.Character diagnosis���� Behaviral
diagnosis�]��Ƥ���H�^
5.Irreversibility����Reversibility�]�i�ܩʡ^
�@ |
| Cognitive Errors (Albert Ellis) |
ALBERT ELLIS' "RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY."
(RET)
IRRATIONAL MALADAPTIVE THOUGHTS
• Musturbation, a catchy term coined by
cognitive therapist Albert Ellis, refers to conditions that we set
in our minds in
order to feel OK or good or satsified about a matter or about
yourself.
• Awfulizing or catastrophizing is the
irrational idea that events are supposed to happen in a certain
prescribed or
expected fashion, and it's awful or a catastrophe if they don't.
• Overgeneralization is concluding that
all instances of some kind of event will turn out a certain way
because one or more
in the past did. A self-evaluation of personal worthlessness is a
specific form of overgeneralization that often accompanies failure.
• Another irrational belief is that "because something once strongly
influenced your life, it has to keep
determining your
feelings and behavior today."
ELLIS' ABC MODEL is very similar but not identical to the
Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence model of behavioral psychology.
A = Activating event (parallel to antecedent)
B = Belief or irrational idea (a form of covert behavior)
C = Consequence. That is, negative emotion or maladaptive behavior.
(In some cases this would be B in the behavioral ABC
model and the C would be the result of the negative emotion or
maladaptive behavior. )
�@ |
| Cognitive Errors (Aaron Beck) |
��Source: http://www.psych.ufl.edu/~sager/Beck.htm
Aaron Beck: Thinking Distortions
�V(1) All or Nothing Thinking (Dichomize):
You see things in black and white categories. If your
performance falls short of perfect. You see yourself as a total
failure
�V(2) Overgeneralization: You see a
single negative event as a never- ending pattern of defeat
�V(3) Mental Filter: You pick out a
single negative detail and dwell on it exclusively so that your
vision of all reality becomes darkened, like the drop of ink that
discolors the entire beaker of water
�V (4)Disqualifying the Positive: You
reject positive experiences by insisting they ��don��t count�� for some
reason or other. In this way you can maintain a negative belief that
is contradicted by your everyday experiences
�V(5)Jumping to Conclusions: You make a
negative interpretation though there are no definite facts that
convincingly support your conclusion
•Mind Reading: You arbitrarily conclude that someone is reacting
negatively to you and you don��t bother to check it out
•The Fortune Teller Error: You anticipate that things will turn out
badly, and you feel convinced that your prediction is an already-
established fact
�V(6)Magnification (Catastrophizing/
minimization): You exaggerate the importance of things (like
your F and someone else��s A), or you inappropriately shrink things
until they appear tiny ( your own desirable qualities or the other
fellow��s imperfections)
•Also called the binocular trick
�V(7)Emotional Reasoning: You should
assume that your negative emotions necessarily reflect the way
things really are
•I feel it therefore it must be true
�V (8)Should Statements: You try to
motivate yourself with shoulds and shouldn��ts, as if you had to be
whipped and punished before you could be expected to do anything.
•��musts�� and ��oughts�� are also offenders
•Emotional consequence is guilt
•When statements of should are directed towards others you feel
anger, frustration, and resentment.
•Who��s theories does this relate to?
�V (9)Labeling and Mislabeling: This is
an extreme form of overgeneralization. Instead of describing your
error, you attach a negative label to yourself
•I��m a looser
�VWhen someone else's behavior rubs you the wrong way, you attach a
negative label to him
•He��s a huge jerk
�VMislabeling involves describing an event with language that is
highly colored and emotionally loaded
�V (10)Personalization: You see yourself
as the cause of some negative external event which in fact you were
not primarily responsible for
�V(11)Self-Worth: You make an arbitrary
decision that in order to accept yourself as worthy, okay, or simply
feel good about yourself, you have to perform in a certain way |
| Cognitive Errors (Rudestam) |
�@ LINGUISTIC HABITS WITH "IRRATIONAL
BELIEF" INFERENCES
* "SHOULD", "MUST"--can imply internal
or external "authority" that cannot be questioned or understood.
OUTCOMES-- give up your power & deny responsibility
REPLACE WITH--"I WANT" or give reasons/outcomes why you choose it.
* "CAN'T", "WON'T"--can imply
inability/incompetence.
OUTCOMES-- deny its a problem of choice or motivation. Lower
self-confidence.
REPLACE WITH--"I CAN, BUT I CHOOSE NOT TO TAKE THE TIME/ENERGY TO.."
* "YOU MAKE ME [feel, etc]..."--
implies that others control you or your feelings.
OUTCOMES -- deny responsibility for own feelings. Lowers
self-confidence and self-control over own feelings, etc.
REPLACE WITH -- "WHEN YOU ..., I ALLOW MYSELF (or "choose") TO FEEL
..."
* CONFUSING FEELINGS WITH THOUGHTS --
implies that you are not really in touch with your feelings [are
"intellectualizing"].
Eg. "I feel that I am not going to finish this paper on time."
OUTCOMES -- avoids facing or dealing with, or telling others of
threatening or embarrassing feelings.
REPLACE WITH-- ACCURATE USE OF FEELING WORDS. Eg. "I feel
embarrassed and angry with myself, because I am not going to finish
this paper on time."
* UNCLEAR OR MISUSE OF PRONOUNS or INDEFINITE
NOUNS -- Eg. "Lifes a bitch, and then you die." "The
administration makes life
miserable for us." "We (you and I) would never believe such a stupid
thing."
OUTCOMES -- can lead to avoiding responsibility or manipulation of
others.
REPLACE WITH-- CLEAR, HONEST, STATEMENTS USING I, YOU, ETC PROPERLY.
"I AM very unhappy with MY life." "I DON'T UNDERSTAND
why MY BOSS asked ME to redo this report." "I would like for YOU to
BELIEVE..."
* INAPPROPRIATE STATEMENTS OF DEFERENCE TO
OTHERS
> "LET ME"-- can imply seeking permission and approval.
> INAPPROPRIATE APOLOGIZING-- can imply insecurity and lack of
self-confidence.
OUTCOMES -- deference to other's, lowered self-esteem.
REPLACE WITH -- "I WOULD LIKE TO..." Replace apologies for behavior
you are really glad you did with attempts at helping
others deal with THEIR unhappiness or problem about what you did.
* MIXED MESSAGE AGREEMENTS [such as
"okay" or "all right"] often said in with reluctant overtones. A
form of "passive
aggression".
OUTCOMES--"dishonest", "hidden", "passive" message to self and other
that you do not really want--and possibly do not really
intend--to do it. Or negative messages of your unhappiness to "get
even" with the other for coercing you into doing it.
REPLACE WITH--Deal DIRECTLY WITH YOUR NEGATIVE FEELINGS/RESERVATIONS
until they are resolved. Either EXTERNALLY deal with them directly
with the other person until they are resolved, or truly INTERNALLY
ACCEPT THAT YOU WILL TO WHAT YOU HAVE AGREED and work at motivating
yourself to do it enthusiastically.
�@ |
| Cognitive errors of p't |
IMPORTANT TYPES OF COGNITIVE BIASES IN
DEPRESSION & OTHER DISORDERS
���� NEGATIVE BIAS--a tendency to look at
the more negative side.
> Perception of Events (past, present, etc) (Eg. See "dark" side.)
> Expectation of outcomes for self/world (Eg. Pessimistic)
> Self-evaluations (Eg. Very self-critical)
> Negative explanations (Eg. Assume worst of peoples motives)
INSTEAD--I will think:
> I will be happier and more motivated if I assume the best.
> If I make a mistake in the direction of being too negative I will
have worried and been negative for nothing. If I make a
mistake in the direction of being too positive, at least I will have
been happy and motivated up until the time I found out
the truth. Even then I can deal with the negative events.
> Positive self-fulfilling prophesies
tend to create positive outcomes and self-fulfilling prophesies tend
to create negative
outcomes.
> Negative self-evaluation leads to
depression, guilt, anxiety, or frustration. It is de-motivating and
unproductive in
meeting my goals and making me happy. Positive self-motivation
creates energy, direction, and happiness.
> Negative explainations of my own or other peoples "underlying
motives" cause me to intensify my anger or other negative
feelings toward that person. It builds conflict, distance, and
animosity in relationships. Assuming the best, is more often
accurate with those we are close to, and builds harmony, trust, and
closeness.
> Assuming the world is a hostile, unfriendly, negative place
creates feelings of fear, anxiety, and anger toward. Viewing
the world as more positive and accepting even the worst as necessary
and out of my control gives me a feeling of peace and
acceptance of the world.
> If I view my current state as deprived, unfair, and not begin
given the opportunties others have had, then I will be constantly
resentful and unhappy. If I view my current state as being a gift
that I was not "owed", and am grateful for all I have and every
minute of my existence, then I will feel happy.
���� SELECTIVE ABSTRACTION--Taking
negative features of a situation out of context and exaggerating
their significance while
downplaying positive features. Eg. If a Sam gets 4 "A"s and one "C",
he focuses on the "C".
> I will list at least one positive for each negative.
���� OVERGENERALIZATION (or magnification)--assuming
far-reaching conclusions from very limited data. For example, making
an
"F" on a test and getting thoughts of how you will flunk the entire
course, flunk out of school, and how you are a very
stupid person.
INSTEAD:
> I will put the negative event into its proper perspective.
> I will step into the future one or more years and look back and
see how important this event really was.
> I can keep "blowing" up this event until it becomes ridiculous and
I can see how ridiculous "overgeneralizing" really is.
���� THINKING IN EXTREMES--exaggerating
differences. Everything is either good or bad, wonderful or awful,
always or never. A person who thinks this way often uses this
radical categorization of their own and other persons
behavior--leading to
exaggerated emotional reactions.
> I will learn to realize that there are no "NEVER", "ALWAYS", 100%
your fault or my fault events. Instead I will always try
to be accurate in balancing out "causation" or "blame". If I state
an absolute, I will immediately begin LOOKING FOR
EXCEPTIONS to that rule, not find more supporting evidence.�@ |
| Coping strategies |
�@ 1.Adaptive
(1)Problem-solving:
��seeking friends, making plans, confrontation
(2)Emotion-reducing:
��ventilation of emotion, avoidance, positive reappraisal, accepting
or rejecting responsibility
��(Alcoholics Anonymous) "the courage to change what can be changed,
the serenity to accept what cannot be changed, and the wisdom to
know the difference"
2.Maladaptive
��use of alcohol or illicit drugs
��deliberate self-harm
��histrionic behaviour
��aggressive behaviour
�@ |
| Mechanisms of defence |
http://www.med.uiuc.edu/m2/psychiatry/2004_Pages/enrichment/Coping_enrichment.html
Primitive Defenses
These defenses range in severity from a psychotic level of
functioning to borderline psychological functioning.
- Denial: Psychotic denial of
external reality is the most primitive form. The denied reality
may be replaced by a fantasy or delusion. Denial may not be
psychotic, and may be occur for a limited period of time, until
an individual is more able to face whatever is so
psychologically overwhelming
- Distortion: Grossly reshaping
external reality to suit inner needs. Can include formation of
delusions, hallucinations, grandiose beliefs. In less severe
form, interpersonal behavior and beliefs may be misconstrued.
- Projection: perceiving and
reacting to unacceptable inner impulses as though they were
outside the self. On a psychotic level, this includes delusions
(usually persecutory). When less primitive, it includes severe
prejudice; rejection of intimacy through suspiciousness;
hypervigilance to external danger; injustice collecting; and
misattribution or misinterpretation of motives, attitudes,
feelings or intentions of others.
Immature Defenses
- Acting Out: Direct expression
in action of an unconscious wish or impulse in order to avoid
awareness of the accompanying feelings. On a chronic level, an
individual gives in to impulses in order to avoid the tension
that would result from postponement of expression.
- Blocking: Inhibition, usually
temporary, of feelings and thoughts. Similar to repression, but
includes more tension.
- Hypochondriasis: Transformation
of reproach towards others, arising from bereavement, loneliness
or unacceptable aggressive impulses, into self-reproach and
complaints of pain, somatic illness, and neurasthenia. Existent
illness may be overemphasized or exaggerated for its evasive or
regressive possibilities.
- Introjection: Internalization
of the characteristics of a loved one with the goal of
establishing a closeness to, constant presence, and negation of
the loss of the person. Introjection of a feared person serves
to avoid anxiety by internalizing the aggressive characteristics
of the person, thus putting the aggression under control. The
individual no longer feels weak or passive, but strong and
active (identification with the aggressor). Introjection can
occur out of guilt. The self-punitive characteristics of the
guilt-inducing person are incorporated within oneself as a
symptom or character trait. Thus, the individual has both
preserved and destroyed the loved one (identification with the
victim).
- Regression: Return to a
previous stage of development or functioning to avoid anxiety or
hostility.
Neurotic Defenses
- Controlling: Excessive attempt
to manage or regulate events or objects in the environment in
the interest of minimizing anxiety and solving internal
conflicts.
- Displacement: Shifting from one
object to another with the purpose of solving a conflict. This
is seen in behavior of other animals, e.g. bill wiping in a bird
instead of aggression.
- Dissociation: Temporary but
drastic modification of sense of personal identity or character
to avoid emotional distress, including fugue states and
hysterical conversion disorders.
- Intellectualization: Control of
feelings and impulses by way of thinking about them instead of
feeling or experiencing them.
- Isolation: Intrapsychic
splitting of feelings from thought content resulting in
repression of either one or displacement of the feeling to a
different thought or set of thoughts.
- Rationalization: Justification
of attitudes, beliefs, or behavior that may be otherwise
unacceptable by an incorrect application of reasons or invention
of a convincing fallacy.
- Reaction Formation:
Unacceptable impulses are expressed in antithetical form, as the
opposite.
- Repression: Withholding or
expelling from consciousness a thought or feeling. The
"forgetting of a repressed thought or feeling is unique in that
highly symbolic behavior may be developed.
- Sexualization: Endowing an
object or function with sexual significance that it previously
did not have or that it possesses to a smaller degree in order
to ward off anxieties connected with prohibited impulses.
Mature Defenses
- Altruism: Vicarious but
constructive and instinctually gratifying service to others.
This is not "altruistic surrender" to others, where direct
gratification is surrendered in favor of fulfilling the needs of
others to the detriment of the self.
- Anticipation: Realistic
planning for future inner discomfort.
- Humor: Overt expression of
feelings without personal discomfort and without unpleasant
effect on others. Allows one to bear and to focus on what is too
terrible to be borne. Wit focuses attention away or distracts
from the feeling.
- Sublimation: The
acknowledgement and subsequent channeling of thoughts, feelings
and behaviors in a socially valued instead of a socially
objectionable manner.
- Suppression: A conscious or
semiconscious decision to postpone attention to a conscious
impulse or conflict.
�@ |
| Behavior Therapy |
�@ 1.Positve reinforcement: Token
economy, self reinforcement
2.Negative reinforcement:
3.Aversive reaction: punishment
4.Extinguish method: secondary gain
1.Systemic desensitization: scenes, virtual reality
2.Reciprocal inhibition technique: relaxation training,
self-inspiration, imagination
3.Flooding
4.Participant modeling: imitate others
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