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Constructivism, Cognitive Flexibility, Behaviorism, Left Brain vs. Right Brain Constructivism, Cognitive Flexibility, Behaviorism, and Left Brain vs. Right Brain, are all similar because they are all philosophies of learning and psychological theories that try to define how a student learns. The theorists study the nature of learning and the properties and nature of knowledge. These theorists propose separate views detailing how learning occurs and how knowledge can be defined. The theories have had an influence on the methods used to teach students in the traditional classroom setting and in Web-based instruction. These learning theories discuss the structuring and presentation of teaching materials. They also address the role of the learner in the educational system. Although they are fundamentally similar, they differ in important aspects. These differences have been the cornerstones of a debate involving the very basis of teaching and learning. Leading educational psychologist, Jean Piaget, popularized the constructivist theory of learning. In the book To Understand is to Invent (1973), Piaget asked teachers to understand the various developmental steps in a child's mind that form the fundamental basis of learning. "To understand is to discover, or reconstruct by rediscovery, and such conditions must be complied with if in the future individuals are to be formed who are capable of production and creativity and not simply recognition." The constructivist theory is based on learning that is actively constructed and built from reflective thinking by each individual learner, and used to construct new knowledge and understanding from authentic experience. This theory views students as active learners who process information and reflect on prior experiences based on their individual perceptions. Learners gain knowledge when they actively try to construct meaning from activities, issues, and concepts. Constructivism proposes self-directed learning that leads students to construct meaning. It encourages knowledge formation, exploration, and discovery. Constructivists believe that the learning process is different for each learner, and based upon their individual perspective and experience. In a constructivist learning environment the teacher's role differs because they become facilitators, observers, and coaches, rather than traditional lecturers. It provides various paths for students to independently investigate with teachers providing assistance. Constructivism is non-linear, and therefore, the World Wide Web is an amazing environment for learning. Students are confronted with problems that are reality based. The teacher as a facilitator inspires students to find solutions by exploring, inventing, collaborating, and experimenting. These types of activities lead to higher-level thinking as students analyze, summarize, predict, justify, and defend their solutions. The Cognitive Flexibility Theory is called "cognitive flexibility" because it refers to the "flexible" way learners assemble and retrieve knowledge from their brains. This theory is best used in designing learning environments that support the use of interactive technology. It is based upon the Cognitive Learning Theory but, it is also very similar to the Constuctivist Learning Theory. Like the Constructivist Theory, it claims that learners construct knowledge by building upon existent knowledge and experiences. It differs in that it builds upon the Constructivist Theory. "Within the constructivist fold, Cognitive Flexibility Theory offers an extension to the idea of the way we process new information, suggesting that we do not simply retrieve packets of old knowledge but we assemble them to form new realities which best relate to the learning material." (Bolton 1999). Cognitive Flexibility theorists believe that "hypertext learning environments are sensitive to and dependent upon the cognitive characteristics necessary for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill/structured domains. The realm of constructive processes must be taken beyond the retrieval of knowledge structures from memory (for the purpose of going beyond the information given in some learning situation) to also include the independent, flexible, situation-specific assemble of the background knowledge structures themselves." (Reibel 1994). Leading Cognitive Flexibility theorists Spiro and Jehng (1990, p.165) state: "By cognitive flexibility, we mean the ability to spontaneously restructure one's knowledge, in many ways, in adaptive response to radically changing situational demands...This is a function of both the way knowledge is represented (e.g., along multiple rather single conceptual dimensions) and the processes that operate on those mental representations (e.g., processes of schema assembly rather than intact schema retrieval)." In cognitive flexibility learning environments, the content and learning activities are represented in a variety of ways. The content is presented using different perspectives and the learning activities are structured to emphasize knowledge construction. The instructional materials support context-dependent knowledge. The learning activities are often based on real-life situations. These types of learning activities motivate the student and the knowledge becomes easily transferable to the learner's knowledge structure. I like the Cognitive Flexibility Theory because it is best suited to a hypertext environment. In turn, the hypertext environment is best suited for self-directed learning. It is also a theory of learning that addresses known patterns of learning failures such as the basic transmitting of objective knowledge. A learner is much more apt to understand concepts if they construct knowledge and use it rather than if they are required to memorize information and repeat it. "The Cognitive Flexibility Theory stresses the conceptual interrelatedness of ideas and their interconnectedness. Instruction that is based upon flexibility theory should reflect the complexity that normally faces practitioners, rather than treating practical, professional problems as simple, linear sequences of decisions. Knowledge becomes more transferable to different problem domains when the individual learner integrates it into his/her own knowledge structure." (2000) This theory also emphasizes the use of various examples to illustrate the content, context dependent knowledge, and knowledge construction. Although they differ slightly on the issues of complexity and compartmentalized knowledge, I applied both the Cognitive Flexibility Theory and the Constructivist Theory of Learning while designing my Web site. "The Cognitive Flexibility Theory conveys this complexity by presenting multiple representations of the same information and different thematic perspectives on the information. In order to construct useful knowledge structures, learners need to compare and contrast similarities and differences between cases." (2000) While the Constructivist Theory is based on the assumption that learners attain knowledge by reflecting on existing information, Cognitive Flexibility theorists believe that learners spontaneously restructure knowledge to adapt to new learning situations. These two theories differ in the way each claims the learner processes and assembles information. Constructivists believe that learners process knowledge from intact knowledge in the brain while Cognitive Flexibility theorists believe an assembly processes takes place when retrieving knowledge. Regardless of how the learner retrieves information, the major elements these two theories share are most beneficial to the learner. I believe the importance of practical, real-world activities motivate students to understand concepts in a more meaningful way. Both theories stress a non-linear approach to learning. I have presented the content and activities in my Web site by using several different methods. The activities are varied and flexible. I believe learners do build upon existing knowledge and process information based on the existing knowledge. I believe that a learner processes new information and then adds it to their existing knowledge to form new realities. These theories view students as active learners who process information and reflect on prior experiences based on their individual perceptions. Learners gain knowledge when they actively try to construct meaning from activities, issues, and concepts. Both the Constructivist and Cognitive Flexibility theories propose self-directed learning that leads students to construct meaning. It encourages knowledge formation, exploration, and discovery. They also both propose that the learning process is different for each learner, and based upon their individual perspective and experience. Also, in environments structured using the Cognitive Flexibility and the Constructivist theory, the teacher acts as a facilitator who inspires students to become problem solvers, explorers, inventors, experimenters and collaborators. These types of activities lead to higher-level thinking as described in Bloom's Taxonomy (West Ed 1999). Various paths of instruction and both independent and collaborative work is encouraged. As stated above, these learning theories are also based on non-linear paths of instruction, and therefore, they are both very well suited for the hypertext environment. The Behaviorist learning theory is defined as "a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior." (On Purpose Associates 1998). This theory differs from the Constructivist and Cognitive Flexibility theories in that it suggests that students are passive learners who can be conditioned to learn if they repeat a new behavioral pattern to the point where it becomes automatic. It is also different in the way theorists' believe learning can be measured , the types of learning activities considered most beneficial to the learner and the types of mental activities that take place during the learning process. The Constructivists and Cognitive Flexibility theorists believe a non-linear path of instruction best motivates and leads the learners to construct knowledge whereas, the Behaviorist believes a linear path to instruction should be presented repeatedly until the learner acquires a new behavior. Leading educational psychologist, B.F. Skinner, popularized the behaviorist theory that is based on behavioral changes. Behaviorists believe that if a new behavioral pattern is repeated, it will eventually become automatic, and learning occurs when a change in behavior is a direct result of experience or practice, thus, students are passive learners. Behaviorists propose that learning occurs because of natural human reflexes, stimulus response associations, and the effects of positive and negative feedback or reinforcers. They classify two different types of learning with the terms classic conditioning and operant conditioning. Classic conditioning describes a natural reflex that responds to a stimulus. For example, Pavlov's dog experiment proves that the dog will salivate when it smells, eats, or sees food. This experiment proved that certain stimulus will produce a specific reflective response. Operant conditioning is based on feedback to reinforce a response to the stimulus. Using this type of conditioning, the response becomes more probable, if it is consistently reinforced. Therefore, Behaviorists believe that behavior can be modified or used to reinforce what has been learned by consequences such as positive/negative feedback and rewards/punishments. They propose that the amount of learning that takes place can be measured by observing overt behavior. Behaviorists believe they can measure learning and knowledge by observing the amount of correct answers. Students are given information and asked to repeat what they have learned to the teacher. Therefore, Behaviorists believe that behavior is determined by outcomes and consequences. Another theory I believe to be useful is the Left Brain vs. Right Brain theory. Research proves that a direct correlation exists between the learning process and the different sides of the brain. Clinical evidence shows that if a person injures the left side of the brain they may suffer problems with language and speech. On the other hand, if the right side of the brain is injured, they may have problems with musical abilities, spatial orientation, and object recognition. Many people have tried to identify traits associated with each side of the brain. These traits are listed in an article entitled "Born to Explore" (1999). The author, Teresa Gallagher, included a statement to tell the reader that the list is partly popular conjecture and partly fact because the brain is such a mystery. Right brain traits are intuitive, nontemporal, random, causal and informal, concrete, holistic, visual, nonverbal, visuo-spatial, responsive, originative, emotional, and exploratory. Left brain traits are methodical, temporal, sequential, linear, factual, verbal, formal, and systematic. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (1998), also agrees that the traits attributed to each hemisphere of the brain are not clear cut. "Description of the left side of the brain is the intellectual, scientific, logical, and linguistic hemisphere while the right side is intuitive, artistic, and mysterious is oversimplification." Although there is much evidence that these traits can be attributed to the different sides of the brain, some traits need both the left and the right brain at the same time to function properly. The brain hemispheres need to communicate with each other to complete specific tasks. A number of sites on the Internet will allow a learner to take a test that will help them determine if they are considered a left-brained or a right-brained person. Knowing what side of the brain a person favors will help determine the types of activities that can be most successful to the learner can be helpful. One such test can be found with an article written by Joshua Dow entitled "Left vs. Right: Your Brain Takes Sides" (2000). The author states, "Different parts of our brain perform different tasks, and how we've developed these tasks can be a big part of who we are or how we think of ourselves." I find this theory interesting because of the research that deals with patients who have had injury to the brain. Often, the traits attributed to specific areas of each hemisphere of the brain are impaired after trauma. This begins to prove that certain functions can be detected in each side of the brain. It is important to note however, that the brain is a very complex entity. It is nearly impossible to imagine that the brain's functions could be described so simply. So, although each hemisphere of the brain is responsible for certain tasks, it is impossible to say how much the two sides of the brain must communicate together to accomplish the tasks. Although no accurate, definitive list of traits for either side of the brain exists at this time, there is some merit to this theory. Both the Constructivist and Cognitive Flexibility have had the most significant effect in the design of my Web site, The Beatles: Across the Curriculum. The materials and activities designed for use in this site are direct examples of the Constructivist and Cognitive Flexibility theories proposed guidelines for providing an active learning environment. I have chosen the Constructivist theory and the adjunct, Cognitive Flexibility theory over other learning theories to be a main design element because these theories are very similar as they promote higher-level thinking, involve students in real-world possibilities, and encourage independent thinking in a Web-based environment. The main reason I chose to use these theories over the other theories is the fact that they have a non-linear path to learning that is harmonious and conducive to the activities and information that can be provided by the World Wide Web. These theories also realize that knowledge is constructed. The way the learner retrieves information from the brain and constructs it, is the topic for debate between these two theories. Constructivists believe that knowledge is retrieved from organized parcels of information and experiences in the brain and used to expand and build upon existing knowledge. Cognitive Flexibility theorists, on the other hand, believe that knowledge is retrieved in a spontaneous, situation-specific assembly. They believe the learner spontaneously assembles and processes the existing knowledge in the brain, thus making the way the learner retrieves knowledge to be more flexible than believed by Constructivists. Whether the learner retrieves intact prior knowledge and builds upon it, or is consistently assembling and processing new meaning from various parcels of prior knowledge, both theories prove that lifelong learning is much more than the retrieval of information from memory. In order to comprehend a concept the learner must construct meaning. Johassen (1991) stated "learners individually construct meaning for objects or events based upon the experiences that they relate to them." In order to give the learner the best opportunity to construct meaning individually, the content and learning activities should be varied to accommodate and motivate the learner. Students must develop an understanding of various mental representations. This can be best achieved by offering the students various types of content and activities. In designing my Web site I have used several ways to introduce material to the learner and have provided various activities such as a WebQuest, resource links, and online tutorials. These types of activities were incorporated into the design of my Web site in a conscious effort to allow the learner the opportunity to actively participate while selecting their own learning path as well as developing meaning for the material. I have provided different activities for them to choose from in order to reach the same objective. They may choose to select one activity or more than one to increase their understanding of each objective. The activities I provided will promote interaction in an active learning environment that will lead to the construction of knowledge. The Behavioral theory of learning effected this Web site in the area concerning behavioral objectives. In an instructional design environment, the use of behavioral objectives is both important and useful so the learner will have an understanding about the specific outcomes that are desired. Through the use of clearly stated objectives (learning goals), the students have a better understanding of the skills they should master as a result after they have completed the activities set forth in the Web site. These behavioral objectives clearly state the behavioral change the instructor wants to see in the student. They also outline activities and tasks the instructor wants the learner to practice while trying to attain the specific outcomes. Some activities incorporated in this Web site will allow the students to practice their computer literacy skills repeatedly, until the use of certain skills will become automatic. The Left Brain vs. Right Brain theory has effected my Web site in that I have tried to include activities that will incorporate a more whole-brained experience. I included activities that will appeal to both sides of the brain. For the left brain, I have included activities that focus on accuracy, analysis, and logical thinking. For the right side of the brain, I have tried to include activities that focus of creativity, individual perceptions, and artistic expression. The different theorists, Constructivists, Cognitive Flexibility, Behaviorist, and Left Brain vs. Right Brain, all believe that their theories propose the best way for a student to learn. They are interested in the methods and strategies teachers use when they teach and how students learn. These schools of thought each have merit and are important in instructional systems and the debate among the theorists will not end anytime soon. References Cognitive Flexibility Theory. [Online]. Available: http://alcor.concordia.ca/~tbolton/edcomp/toc.html [2000, February 10]. Dow, Joshua. (2000). Left vs. Right: Your Brain Takes Sides. [Online]. Available: http://freezone.com/brain/rightleft/ [2000, February 8]. Gallagher, Teresa. (1999). Born to Explore: The Other Side of ADD. [Online]. Available: http:borntoexplore.org/addint.htm [2000, February 7]. Kearsley, Greg. (1999). Exploriations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database. [Online]. Spiro, R.J., & Jehng, J. (1990). Cognitive Flexibility and Hypertext: Theory and Technology for the Non-linear and Multidimensional Traversal of Complex Subject Matter. D. Nix & R. Spiro (eds.), Cognition, Education, and Multimedia. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. Available: http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/spiro.html [2000, February 9]. On Purpose Associates: Funderstanding. (1998). How Do People Learn?: Behaviorism. [Online]. Available: http://www.funderstanding.com/learning_theory_how/2.html [2000, February 8]. Piaget, Jean. To Understand is to Invent. New York: Grossman, 1973. Reibel, Hoshua. (1994). Pedagogy for the 21st Century. [Online]. Spiro, Rand, Feltovich, Jacoboson, & Coulson. "Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Tandom Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains." Available: http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/papers/Sprio.html [2000, February 9]. Unknown author. (2000). Cognitive Flexibility Theory: A Definition [Online]. Available: http://www.ed.psu.edu/insys/527/cft/CFT DEF.HTM [2000, February 8].
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