For each battle I will try to give an understandable explanation for it. When possible I'll include the sources that I used for the description. Some I'll try to give a link if there is a site that is devoted to the battle or events around it. But I guarantee that I'll give a date for the battle, because thats my purpose. If there is an alternate date that cannot be disproved, I'll certainly include it. Battles will be grouped into sections covering the wars in which they occurred in.

The Persian Wars

This battle was an underdog victory for the ancient Greeks. In the Archonship of Phainippos the Persians under the command of Datis and Artaphrenes have taken Eretria and now land at the beach of Marathon to invade mainland Greece. The reason for this was the Greek sacking of the Asian and Persian city of Sardis. In revenge the Persian king Darius sent a punitive expedition in 492 BC that was struck down in a storm while sailing around Mt. Athos. Two years later Darius again sent his fleet out. They landed first on the island of Euboea to take the city of Eritrea. After a siege they take the city and move its remaining population. Then they cross over to the mainland at Marathon. There is around 25,000 of them. They chose this area because communication lines were short, the land was suited for Persian cavalry, and an old deposed Greek tyrant and collaborator, Hippias, lived in that area a decade earlier. The Athenians mustered their troops and marched out to meet them. Later 1000 Plataean troops arrived to be true to their 519 BC alliance with Athens. After a 7 day standoff the Greeks, under Miltiades, charged at the Persian invaders in a "suicidal frenzy", or so thought the Persians. The Persians were probably starting to get back on their ships, so their cavalry wasn't ready. However they were involved since contemporary paintings show cavalry. With stronger wings and a thin center, the better armed and armored Greeks surround, kill and drive the Persians off the beaches at Marathon! The charge seems to have been made under heavy arrow fire. After the remaining Persians escape, the rest sail towards Athens' east harbor called Phalerum, around the Sunium cape. But at Phalerum they see the returning army on the hills shining in the sunlight and turn back to Asia. 192 Athenians die in the battle and it is said 6400 Persians die (192 x33 1/3).

For dating the battle, it lies in the absence of the Spartans. They have decided to wait before sending help to Marathon. A runner was sent on the "real" marathon run to Sparta to get help. The Spartans tell him they must wait for the full moon before doing anything militarily, then he leaves. The full moon was in the early hours of September 9. When the Spartans left they took 3 days to march to Athens (9,10,11) but were late for the battle and the scaring of the Persians at Phalerum (Athens' harbor). Therefore the Battle of Marathon most likely occurred on September 10, 490 BC. But why September and not August? Since the September is the end of the sailing season, and the Persians still had most of there forces, they didn't attack Greece again that year so they must have just realized it was too late and said "we'll get em next year", or what would be 10 years from now! The Greeks place almost mythic status on this battle. It was history's greatest at that time. In truth, if the Persians won and conquered Greece, what would have stoped them from continuing right across the Mediterranean? So this battle really set the stage for east-west conflict that would exist for quite some time. Herodotus gives the best account of this battle and is my major source. Jona Lendering's site chronicles the events of the Persian wars as well and has better graphics, maps and charts than I have now, so please visit his site.

After the Persian failure of September 10, 490 BC, Persian king Darius I decides on a full scale invasion of Greece but is forced to quell rebellion in Egypt and dies in 486 BC before invading Greece again. His son, Xerxes I, is made king in November and ends Egyptian rebellion, but has to fight again in Babylon delaying the Greek plans to 484 BC. The Persian court seems to have been the real force behind the younger king. He takes 3 years to prepare, and is in Sardis (modern west Turkey) by October 481 BC. Spending the winter and spring gathering a huge Army and Navy he leaves Sardis on what might have been April 8. He learns that storms have destroyed his bridges that he will use to cross the Hellespont. He orders that the Hellespont's waters be lashed 300 times. His men now have to build new bridges. They were impressive feats. It took over 300 ships for each bridge. Xerxes gets his army across in 7 days and moving again after more delays, by the summer solstice (June 21). The Army is about 400,000 strong, 10,000 men from 40+ sections of the Persian Empire. The Navy has about 750 warships and around 450 transports (1207 is the total) manned by about 360,000 men. 22,000 men are used to guard the communication lines. They march and sail along the coast to modern Thessaloniki in Macedonia while engineers build roads into Greece. So they don't have to hurry. They build a canal through the Isthmus of Actium to avoid Mt. Athos, where the Persian navy was sunk by storms in 492 BC. Thessalonki (then called Therma) and Thebes surrender instantly to Xerxes. Arriving near Therma in late July they stay in that area in August due to hot weather and waiting for the harvests from Macedonia and Therma. This is one reason why the battles to come were in September, not August. Herodotus tells us that rivers were drunk dry by the Persians, showing how hot that summer was (like August 2000 AD in Greece).

This is the only time in Ancient Greek history where the leading city states joined to fight a common enemy. The Spartans lead the alliance that they formed in October 481 BC when Xerxes reached Sardis. It is referred to as the Corinthian League. The Greeks knew of the Persian buildup for some time. In July 481 BC the Delphi oracle prophesised that Athens was doomed if she was to fight the Persians. A message from the oracle said "The wooden wall will not fall" seemed to show that the Athenian navy was required to fight the Persians. Realistically, if the Athenian navy stayed out of the war, Xerxes could sail his army to anywhere in Greece. In September 481 BC Athens was evacuated, the women and children were sent to Troezen, but the priests remained on the Acropolis. When the league met, both Athens and Sparta were worried. Sparta was told by the oracle that either their king would die or Sparta would be destroyed. The city of Argos declines to join causing more worry. Aegina and Syracuse could not be counted on for support and Greek spies were caught in Sardis. Evacuating Athens now was probably due to false information on Persian movements. The Greeks spend a winter worrying about the next year. The next spring Therma sends ambassadors to Corinth to ask for Greek help. The Greeks march to the Tempe pass but learn the Persians can bypass them. They leave Therma isolated and she surrenders to Xerxes in July. The council at Corinth decides to defend the 8-foot wide pass of Thermopylae. In this year Kalliades is Archon in Athens.

This battle is a true showing of courage and betrayal. Coastal fire signals are used to alert Greece that Xerxes leaves Therma and Spartan king Leonidas is given command of the Greeks at Thermopylae. A festival in Sparta delays their whole army from marching to the pass. The pass is almost perfect for holding an army at bay. It is only 8 or 9 feet wide at its smallest point. In antiquity it was a cliffside pass. Enemies could be speared and thrown over the cliff into the sea. Today the silt has built up to over a mile from the sea.

By September 13, Xerxes has made it to the pass and the Greeks have 271 warships at Artemisium. The fire signals alert them that the navy is approaching. Xerxes waits for 4 days before attacking the Greeks (hoping they will just run away) which number only about 4200. On September 17 the Median and Elimite(Cissian) divisions are sent forward. The Greeks make short work of them but do this all day long. Many are simply drove off the cliffs. Xerxes sends his bodyguard, called the "Immortals" by Herodotus but really known as "Companions". The Persian name of the royal guard is An��ya ("Companions"), but Herodotus had written Anau�a ("Immortals"). 3 times Xerxes panics when the Greeks drive them off. The main reason is that the Greeks use longer spears so the Persians can't reach them. On the 18th the Persian do no better. Each Greek cities' contingent take a turn leading the defense to give the other guys a break. But the Phocian division guards a mountain path that will be of use later. But the Persians get what they need. A Greek named Ephialtes informs Xerxes that he can outflank the Greeks by using the mountain path that cuts around the pass to the south. Xerxes already knows the Greeks have only 4200 men. They use the path on the night of the 18th. On the morning of September 19, 480 BC a Persian contingent walks too loudly on the dry oak leaves (obviosly late August or later) and wakes the Phocians. They think the whole Persian army is coming toward them and retreat a little and stand to fight to the death. But the Persians don't have time to mess with them and hurry down the mountain. They must get behind the pass of Thermopylae before sunup. Leonidas learns that the Persians have outflanked him. He tells his men to eat well since they won't survive the day. He sends 2600 men back south and remains with his 300 Spartan personal guard and the 1100 Boetians (700 Thespians and 400 Thebans) stay to stall for time. Leonidas remembers the oracle about Sparta and stands firm. This can only explain such a decision to stay here instead of retreating to the Corinthian Isthmus. Although the Greeks now number only 1400 or so, the Persians are scared to death of them. Their infantry has to be whipped forward by the officers and pure numbers eventually overwhelmed the Spartans. Leonides falls in the fight and the remaining Greeks use all their power to drive the enemy back to get his body (it took 4 attempts of non-hoplite style fighting). The Greeks run to a hill for a last stand at the entry to the narrows of the pass. Now the Thebans under the command of Leontiades surrender and the Thespians and the Spartans are left to their fate. There are only 900-1000 men left! They stand in close ranks and the Persians completeley circle them and fire thousands of arrows and spears to kill them. The battle site was discovered in modern times by finding the Persian arrowheads. Xerxes found the body of king Leonidas and had it beheaded and the body crucified.

Thus ended the Battle Of Thermopylae, the ultimate stand against impossible odds! A Golden lion was erected on the hill where the Thespians and Spartans made their last stand in honor of King Leonidas. It is said the Persians lost 20,000 men. But now the road to Athens and central Greece is wide open. Athens is just 85 miles away, no more than 2 days distance for the Persian cavalry! But the Greeks had some luck at this time. The Navy off of Thermopylae at Artemisium had better luck!

The dating of this battle is debated. Most sources show August as the month, including the Encyclopedia Britannica. At Jona Lendering's site, he gives such a good explanation I have used his dates of September which make more sense. Herodotus says the olympics were occurring during the battle, along with the Carneia festival in Sparta. Modern scholarship has put forward a decent theory. Each olympics took place after the ninth full moon following the previous winter solstice. In 480 BC this happened in September instead of August, due to the proximity of the solstice and the full moon in December 481 BC. Also the Persians would need the moonlight to traverse the trail around Thermopylae.

With the Persian victory at Thermopylae, all that stood to save Greece, short of a great land battle, was the Greek Navy. In 483 BC, a very large vein of silver was struck at Laurium, a village north of Athens, where silver had been mined for some time. The money produced was used to build a large fleet of warships for Athens. The ships are build under the guide of Themistocles, the great Athenian statesman.

On about September 12 (August 13), the Persian fleets are sailing towards Thermopylae with the army marching on the land. Probably that night the navy tries to anchor off of Mount Pelion or Squid's Cape. A violent storm comes up and sinks about 400 Persian ships. Only 800 make it to the safe area of Aphetae on the coast. Meanwhile the 271 Greek ships are anchored at Artemisium. The Greek commander is the Spartan Eurybiades. But he does not want to fight the Persians. He is there because his king is at the pass of Thermopylae. So the second in command is Themistocles. He wants to prevent the Persian navy from reaching Athens. The Persians know of course that the Greeks are waiting for them, but they want a quick and decisive victory and take no prisoners. So basically they realize that the Greek navy is the real threat, not the land army. On the night of September 16 (August 17), a man named Scyllias, a native of Scione, who was the most expert diver of his day, defects to the Greeks. He travels the 80 furlongs from Aphetae to Artemisium by rowboat and tells the Greeks about the Squid Cape disaster and the special news. The Persians, as part of their master plan, is to sail 200 ships around the island of Euboea and surprise the Greeks from the rear. So the Greeks must act quickly. They now face 600 ships , mostly partly damaged, the weakest they'll ever be. On September 17 (August 18), in the evening, Greek ships charge the Persians. The idea is to test Persian tactics. It should be noted that the Persians are not a sea people. Look at a map af their empire and you'll understand. Anyway, the Persians are caught off guard. 30 of their ships are captured, Lycomedes, an Athenian, is the first to score a kill. The only one to defect to the Greeks is Antidorus of Lemnos, Ionia, whom the Athenians rewarded for his desertion by the present of a piece of land in Salamis. Nightfall ended the fighting and the navy's sailed back to their respective harbors. Fighting barely ended and it began to rain again. Northerly winds push south the wrecks of ships and bodies from Squids Cape. The Persians are expecting the worse, since the storm is approaching and the wreckage prevents easy maneuvers. They have a hell of a night. However, the worst news is that the 200 Persian ships rounding Euboea, are totally destroyed and many men drown.

On September 18 (August 19), The Greeks receive 53 more ships from Attica (area around Athens). The Greeks also get word of the 200 wrecked Persian ships. The newly strengthened navy does the same thing they did the day before. This time they sink a bunch of Cilician vessels. Night brings a end to the fighting.

On the third day, September 19 (August 20), the Persians take to the fight first. They are tired of the Greeks humiliating them. At about 11:45 AM, the Persians form a half circle to encircle the greeks at Artemisium. The Greeks sail out to meet them and a naval slugging match ensues. The Athenians are the toughest fighters for the Greeks, the Egyptians for the Persians (Egypt is now a Persian territory). None have an advantage but it seems that the Greeks came out the worst. Half of their navy is badly damaged and sails south but the Persians probably lost more men. When both sides gave up the fight and sail away, the Greek captains go to Euboea to discuss the matter. They get the people there to slaughter their animals for the greeks to keep them from going to the enemy. Also the fastest sailors were sent along the coast to the south to cut inscriptions at watering holes where the Persians will certainly land and see them. They is an attempt to convince the Ionian Greeks in the Persian Navy to defect. The day ended and so did the third day of the Battle of Artemisium!

It should be known that the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium are well connected. It wasn't just a coincidence that the two battles took place on the same days. The idea was that the Greek army would stall for time while the navy would damage the Persian navy. Without the large Persian navy, the oversized Persian army could not be supplied. As a matter of fact, a scout who had been on the watch at Trachis arrived at Artemisium. For the Greeks had two watchers: Polyas, a native of Anticyra, had been stationed off Artemisium, with a row-boat at his command ready to sail at any moment, his orders being that, if an engagement took place by sea, he should convey the news at once to the Greeks at Thermopylae; and in like manner Abronychus the son of Lysicles, an Athenian, had been stationed with a triaconter near Leonidas, to be ready, in case of disaster befalling the army, to carry news of it to Artemisium. It was this Abronychus who now arrived with news of what had befallen Leonidas and those who were with him. When the Greeks heard the news they no longer delayed to retreat, but withdrew in the order wherein they had been stationed, the Corinthians leading, and the Athenians sailing last of all. Now land and sea north of the Peloponnese was lost to the Persians. But Xerxes paid for this. He lost 20,000 men at Thermopylae and half his ships are gone. His army now completely depended on his naval success.

Well here they were in September, 480 BC. The Greek navy knew it could handle the Persian navy, but was forced to sail to Salamis. The Athenians go to Athens' harbor of Phalerum. Since they could not engage the Persian fleet again due to the end of the land battle at Thermopylae, all of Boeotia and Attica fall into Persian control. The Greeks take the rest of the people who remained in Athens, who wished to leave, to the Peloponnese. Some religious hardliners stay and fortify the Acropolis. They build a wooden palisade because they believe it is the "wooden wall" that will not fall. In the meantime, king Xerxes is covering up his losses at Thermopylae. He buries huge numbers of dead men in trenches (19,000) and covers the trenches with foliage so his sailors, who are about to visit, don't see his rather large embarrassment. On the third day of the battles, near the evening, a man from Histiaea went in a merchantship to Aphetae, and told the Persians that the Greeks had fled from Artemisium. The Persians didn't believe him but sent out scouts anyway. Since the Greeks had left , the Persians sent their fleet to Artemisium at sunrise on September 20th. They stay until mid-day and sail and capture the coastal city of Histiaea. Xerxes sends a message to his sailors to come and see his "Great Victory" at Thermopylae. His men were not fooled at all. Why did so many Greeks die on a little hill where a thousand Persian soldiers were so spread out. And what was with the long lines of dead foliage? It was a total embarrassment. This sightseeing took all day. At the end of that day, the 21st, the sailors leave for Histiaea. Xerxes resumes his march south the next day. It was probably on this day (September 22) that he learned the olympic games were occurring but in reality had ended 3 or 4 days before. His army burns all villages in the valley of Cephissus, including a temple of Apollo. His men also rape women to death. At Panopeis Xerxes sends a division of men to the Oracle at Delphi but they get caught in a rockslide at Mount Parnassus. Xerxes army is marching straight for Athens. But along the way they burn the cities of Thespiae and Plataea. The Persian Navy meanwhile, spends 3 days in Histiaea, and sails for 3 days and reaches Phalerum. The army had 3 days march advance ahead of the navy and both forces were joined by Greek forces who really had no choice since they were completely isolated. The Navy probably started to arrive off of Phalerum on September 27 at the end of the day. They all got their by the end of the next day. A 1000 ships don't all arrive and anchor at once. Xerxes meets them and learns of the battle of Artemisium. Xerxes has already reached Athens, and after some difficulty, captured the Acropolis. This probably happened also on September 27 (or even the next day). He burns the Acropolis. The Athenian exiles who are with the Persians aren't too impressed.

The Greeks now have an interesting problem. Fight the Persians in an all-risk sea battle at Salamis, or retreat to the Peloponnese and fight a great land battle. On the night of the 27th, the Athenian commander Themistocles blackmails the Spartan commander Eurybiades to keep the ships at Salamis. He threatens to take the Athenian navy to Sicily, which would spell death for Greece. At sunrise on September 28, there was an earthquake. Xerxes himself wonders how he should proceed. He decides to send out his army towards the Corinthian Isthmus. Around 50,000 Greeks have spent about a week building a wall across the isthmus to block the road called the Scironian Way. Since Themistocles wasn't sure the Greek captains would follow his strategy, he send his slave named Sicinnus, to Xerxes with the message that he should attack the Greeks quickly before they "evacuate" Salamis. The Persian commanders are overjoyed at the news. They want to destroy the Greek Navy! Troops are sent to the islet of Psyttaleia, which lies between Salamis and the mainland, so Persian sailors can be rescued and wrecks pulled away from the battle. They spend all night quietly moving their forces in place. There is no moon so neither side can see each other. Xerxes plans to ambush a retreating greek navy. His army is also marching towards Corinth. But now the squabbling greek commanders get what they need. An Athenian named Panaetius who could now escape persian service came to the Greek commanders and told them the entire Persian plan of attack, which was really Themistocles idea all along. He just had to keep his mouth shut. But I'm sure he enjoyed this moment. So the Greeks prepared their ships for the battle that would decide whether Xerxes could keep his huge army in Greece. The battle was fought the next day!

This was the first great naval battle in recorded history! On the morning of this day, each side knew this was it. Speeches were given to the troops and they set out. Contrary to popular belief, the Persian navy attacked first. The Greeks had just got off the beach when the Persians charged. The greeks seemed to be frightened but then a greek ship, probably an Athenian, charged out alone towards the enemy. The rest seemed to renew their courage. All 378 or 380 Greek ships charged forward. The Persians are in at least 3 lines perpendicular in formation to a single Greek line. In the narrow bay of Salamis, called the Saronic gulf, the Persians can't maneuver hardly at all. The battle is a slaughter for the Persians. The Greeks lose around 40 ships but few men. The Greeks can swim so I think they may have lost only 100 men or so. The Persians lost huge amounts of men to drowning. One of the casualties is Xerxes own brother Ariabignes, one of the chief commanders of the fleet, who was a son of Darius as well. The greeks sink ship after ship. Most can't retreat due to the congestion. Basically, each Greek ship was smaller and more agile than the enemy's. So each Greek ship likely sank 1 Persian ship each. At least 1/3 of Xerxes' fleet is destroyed and now lying in wrecks on the Attican coastal shore of Colias. The Persian fleet was between 800 and 1000, now numbered at most 600. All of the Persian navy certainly wasn't involved. There wouldn't be enough room to maneuver. 200 warships had been lost earlier. The fleet tries to retreat to Phalerum but the Eginetan contingent of the Greek navy, sinks even more. But eventually, much of Xerxes fleet makes it back to Phalerum. The battle probably lasted 6 hours and was over before mid-afternoon. Xerxes was not impressed at all. He called his sailors women, due to a woman showing great courage in the battle. Her name was Artemisia. "My men have behaved like women, my women like men", were his words. Xerxes watches the whole battle from the hill called Aegaleos. That hill overlooks the entire battle area. After the fight is over, he decides to chain the Phoenician merchant ships together, to serve at once for a bridge and a wall. The idea is to keep the greek ships from sailing to the Hellespont and destroying the bridges there, also to keep his idea of flight from his men, but they are not fooled. The Greeks meanwhile are cleaning up the gulf and are ready for another fight but it never happened. The Athenian Aristides takes some heavy combat troops to the islet of Psyttaleia, and slew all the Persians occupying it. The Persian navy, beaten and demoralized, limped back to Phalerum.

This battle was the first truly great naval battle of all history. It was the true turning point in the Persian war. It forced the huge Persian army to begin to leave. The date of this battle is very agreed upon. The Eleusinian Mysteries would have ended on the day of this battle so it is almost certainly this day. I'm convinced. If you want to check out Jona's site, click here!

After the naval defeat of Xerxes on September 29, he knew he had to leave. He fears the Ionian Greeks defecting. He couldn't take the risk of engaging the Greek navy again. If he beat them he would have lost so many ships, he could not supply the army and would be too isolated. If he lost again, the Hellespont bridges would be in grave danger, and his whole army would be quickly starved to death. So on September 30 he has completed his ship bridge (but is building a causway to give the impression of continueing the fight) to Salamis and then decides to evacuate his ships from Phalerum on that night. He also decides to take Mardonius' advice and gives him command of 300,000 men to winter in Greece to fight the next year. Xerxes will take the rest back to Asia. The navy is sent to guard the Hellespont bridges, but they have to act as the bridges themselves since a storm has destroyed the old bridges yet again. Meanwhile the Greeks are waiting anxiously for another attack. Oddly the Persian navy left before their army did, (Herodotus 8.107-108). The Greeks are still working on the wall. On October 1, the Persian army is still camped on the Attican side of the Corinthian Isthmus. They have been plundering the area. Themestocles wants to attack the Hellespont but the Spartan Commander Eurybiades overrules him since it is better to let the big enemy escape unharmed so he doesn't have to fight you in a desperate battle. The Persians were starting to run out of food. On October 2 (or 3), Xerxes and his army begin the long march to the Hellespont. The travel the same way back that which they came. In Thessaly, They stop and Mardonius chooses the best men in the army to stay in Greece. Notably the "Immortals" and Persians with body armor and the finest horsemen. The leader of the Immortals, Hydarnes, refuses to leave Xerxes side and continues to Asia. He takes 45 days to reach the Hellespont. Along the way thousands die due to plague, dysentery, but most of all, starvation. His men have to eat grass, tree bark and leaves. Many men don't make it to Thrace. They stay in Macedonia. There Xerxes learns that his sacred chariot and horses of Jove have been stolen by the Thracians of the upper Strymon river. On about November 15, he reaches the bridges and crosses. By now he probably had less than 80,000 men. More die when they cross over to Abydos when the men stuff themselves and seem to have drank contaminated water. Eventually Xerxes and the survivors of his army make it to Sardis. The navy winters in Cyme. Meanwhile the Greeks are attacking various island cities to secure the mainland. Among them is Delos. So ended the year 480 BC. The Greeks had saved themselves for now, but would be tested on land the next year. It would be the only time in Greek history that all the major cities would join forces to destroy the Persian invaders.

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This page was completed on November 21, 2000

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