Cord- Inventing Tradition: The Global Development of Irish Dance Here is the best draft I stored of my essay on the global development of Irish dance. Some of this was not published in the final draft, either in honor of brevity or coherence. To all would be plagarists, please contact me before using this information as a quote, as I did a good deal of work to write it, and as I have the copyrights per its publication in the CORD Conference Journal. The date of composition was August 2001. My name is Elizabeth Venable, and my email is [email protected]. Thanks!
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Inventing Tradition: The Global Development of Irish Dance
Elizabeth Venable
Ever since 1994, the wave that is Riverdance has set and kept in motion an expansion of Irish dance of global proportions. Irish dancing has traversed the planet, and, while doing so, it has intensified, become far stronger as a whole, and enveloped a whole new community of performers. Traditions have been invented to fit these new communities and the new modes of thought within the ever expanding world-wide population of Irish dancers.
A basic explanation of terms and organizations is needed. An Coimisi�n le Rince Gaelacha (An Coimisi�n) was created in 1929 by Conradh na Gaeilge, and has grown to be the largest Irish dancing organization in the world. The other main Irish dancing organization worldwide is Comhdhail na Muinteoiri le Rince Gaelacha (An Comhdhail) became an independent organization in 1970 after dissent within the Coimisiun. There is also an organization of Festival Irish dancers, although this group does not have much footing outside of Ireland. Comhaltas Ceolt�ir� Eireann is an international set dancing organization. Both An Coimisi�n and An Comhdhail have rigorous certification examinations. In both organizations, teachers are called TCRGs, and certified adjudicators are called ADCRGs. A feis is a competition; �feiseanna� is the plural. Riverdance was an extremely successful Irish dancing show that premiered at Eurovision in 1994. The post-Riverdance era is the time since Riverdance's debut.
Recent increases in the numbers of certified and uncertified teachers have been notable. In 1997, the An Coimisi�n Liosta Oifigiuil (Official List of Registered Adjudicators and Teachers, Coimisi�n) listed 319 ADCRGs and TCRGs in America. In three years, that number had increased to 377. In Canada, the numbers increased from 50 to 55. In Australia, the increase was from 108 to 131 registered teachers. New Zealand increased from 20 to 23 teachers. In 1997, there was one (inactive) teacher listed in Kenya. By 2000, the number of teachers living in Africa had increased to 21. The additional 20 are all newly registered "Associate" teachers. In 1997,there were no Coimisi�n -certified teachers listed as living in Europe. Currently, there is one inactive teacher in Italy, and one teacher living in the Netherlands, according to the list. This guide, however, may be incomplete, as Maria McAteer, who teaches in Germany, and is certified by An Coimisi�n as a temporary TCRG, does not seem to be listed. There are also a fair number of Coimisi�n teachers who live in either England or Ireland and travel abroad to teach. For example, Caroline O'Toole lives in England, but holds workshops in Austria on a regular basis (O�Toole, 2001). There are non-resident Coimisi�n teachers sponsoring classes in, at the very least, Austria, Germany, and the Netherlands.
These numbers also do not reflect the growth of those registered by An Comhdhail or Festival, of Comhaltas Ceolt�ir� Eireann, or of uncertified teachers. For example, Comhdhail lists Slovakia as a region, in the same manner and context as it does the United States (Comhdhail, 2000). Presumably there are active Comhdhail-certified teachers in that area. However, Tine Tomazic suggests that only workshops have been held in that country (Antonio Pacelli, 2001). Other, non-Coimisiun classes are currently being held in Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland (Robinson, 2001). There are also classes in such disparate areas as Russia, which has hosted master classes taught by "The Emerald Isle Irish Dance Team" (Irish dance in Moscow, 2001) and is also permanent home to Iridan, which is an unregistered school in Moscow (Iridan, 2001), and Japan, which is home to a Comhaltas Ceolt�ir� Eireann affiliated set dance class and a few unregistered step dance teachers. CCE also has classes/groups in Australia and Italy, as well as the United States and Canada (Comhaltas, 2000).
To accommodate for the demand for Irish dance classes, there has been a virtual explosion in the number of unaffiliated and uncertified teachers that are holding classes all around the world. Some of these have actual, often prestigious and comprehensive, Irish Dance experience, and simply have not proceeded through the certification process, some have experience, but are not trained to certification level, and some have simply studied or watched the instructional or show tapes. These teachers offer everything from authentic ceili or set dancing and/or solo dancing, to "Riverdance-style" tap and �Irish� pseudo-ballet. Barbara Butkis, who teaches in the Netherlands, remarks on the scarcity of qualified teachers to fit demand, �At this point, however, there is only one T.C.R.G. in the whole country and three or four teachers with traditional background beyond that. "Riverdance" courses are popping up here and there as well� (Antonio Pacelli, 2001). Fortunately, the phenomenal popularity of �Irish-influenced� studio pieces taught by teachers almost completely untrained in the form, generally for recitals, seems to be tapering off as interested students discover that they can study something other than a parody.
There is a large proliferation of teachers in Germany, some of whom have impressive competitive backgrounds. Maria McAteer, for example, was originally taught by the Lindsay Monaghon School, and, during her competitive career, she placed first in the All England Championships, second in the All Ireland Championships, and fifth in the World Championships (Br�ring, 2001). Mary Murray, who teaches the Rince Tir Na Nog school, was part of a Farrelly School ceili team that placed first in the World Championships, and also qualified for the Worlds as a solo dancer (Sweeney, 2001). Anne Murphy, who was taught at the Cowie-Ryan School of Irish Dancing, won the first Worlds in her age group at age of 12, has been teaching the Emerald Dancers since 1989 (Murphy, 2001). There are over 20 teachers and studios offering types of Irish dance in Germany.
In addition, there has been a warm welcome for shows in Germany, and many (To Dance on the Moon, Magic of the Dance, Gaelforce, etc.) either began their tours there or devoted large time allotments to the country. Celtic Life, a new show that is choreographed by Maria McAteer, Alex de Fohs, and Rachel Jackson, premiered in May of 2001 in Haldensleben, Germany, has toured the country and is scheduled to perform into the year. The show features such other stylistic additions as body percussion, tap and modern dance, with a story based upon the ancient Irish saga "The Third Wooing of Etain ", a story of a battle over love (Celtic Life, 2001). Robert Gabriell Homeier, who had previously choreographed for Magic of the Dance, is currently managing another show, Fairy Tree, which he has choreographed and currently dances in. This show features the Summerstorm Dance Company, also based upon an epic romance, and, as of 2001, was performing around the country (Riedl, 2001). Incidentally, Magic of the Dance, which has a Slovenian producer (Jaka Bizilj) and an extensive German development period, now stars a German, Tanja Szewczenco, who, although she has very little formal dance experience, was a figure skating World and European Championship Medallist. However, the bulk of the main performers are Irish (Star Entertainment International, 2001).
As there are only a few fully certified teachers working in Europe, and, as most of the students have been training for no more than a few years, the competition structure is much less stratified and more inclusive. For example, any student at any school may participate in most feiseanna, regardless of the status of their teachers. An example of a typical European feis might be the International Benelux Feis (2001), which was hosted (in its sixth year) by the Luxembourg Comhaltas Ceolt�ir� Eireann. It seems that all types of schools were allowed to participate, ranging from Rince Tir Na Nog to Tap Show Company to Vlaams Caledonische Society. There was one �real� adjudicator, Tony Nolan, ADCRG, and two competition levels, Beginner and Primary, as well as a number of �Championships� which, as they were separated into the previous two categories, are probably similar to �Specials� in the United States- dances in which one competes simply for the prize, and not for any sort of advancement (Comhaltas, 2001). As of yet, there are few to no examples of championship-level dancers. For example, no continental Europeans are listed in the results from the first Annual European championships, which were held in 2001, in Spain (Kennedy, 2001). This, however, may simply be a matter of time and training.
Irish dancing in South Africa seems to be less well developed than in Europe, probably because of the physical distance between it and any Irish �center� (South Africa being more than 5000 miles from Australia) makes it difficult to access qualified teachers and witness styles other than those on videotapes. Spirit of the Dance and Lord of the Dance have both toured South Africa, and Feet of Flames aired on South African Television, but, otherwise, the exposure to Irish dance seems to be limited. However, Dr. John (Sean) Cullinane, ADCRG, taught master classes in South Africa, and there are 20 Coimisi�n Associate Teachers, some with elaborate backgrounds in other forms of dance, but, generally, without extensive training (up to championship-level) in Irish. According to Elinor Boyes (Coimisi�n Associate Teacher), �Irish Dancing competition in South Africa has only recently been launched (since 1999) and dancers up to xxx Beginners compete. With time our dancers will progress up to the more advanced and Championship sections of competition dancing and competitions held in South Africa will accommodate them accordingly� (Boyes, 2001).
The newly extended reaches of Irish dance have left some areas without access to any sort of teacher. Thus, tapes of beginner lessons, and instructions for set and ceili dances, have become very popular. The most referenced of these is either Olive Hurley�s (ADCRG) or Colin Dunne�s. There are several Irish dancing lessons to be found on the internet, including an "Ooroki [Lesson] Irish Dance" for Russians (Celtic Dance, 2001), which teaches "jump-overs", "treble hop back", "half click", "high click", "cut, tip down", "box", and a "slide". This site, while it is far more comprehensive than is usual on the internet, is hardly a complete guide to Irish dancers, but it and others are allowing students in countries with virtually no access an entrance into the world of Irish dancing. Irish dance discussion lists have also become very popular over the past few years, to the extent that they are now being monitored by (at least) the Western United States Region (Coimisiun), which is now punishing those who post negative comments about Irish dancing or any groups, teachers, or adjudicators on the Internet.
Spirit of the Dance has toured Venezuela, Turkey, Korea, Japan, China, Taiwan, Indonesia, Brazil, and Mexico (Spirit of the Dance, 2001). Trinity Irish Dance Company is scheduled to tour Thailand in Fall of 2001 (Trinity Irish Dance Company, 2001). Perhaps children in these countries will develop an interest in Irish dancing; perhaps not, as most will not be able to access any sort of teacher.
There are, of course, regions of the world that had a longstanding Irish dance community before Riverdance. These countries generally experienced high rates of Irish colonization, and the Irish dancing communities followed and developed within these �migr� groups. However, these countries have certainly not been untouched by the �Riverdance� phenomenon; rather, they may be experiencing the most dramatic and permanent increases and changes.
Irish dancing in New Zealand dates from approximately 1910, following the entrance of certain �migr� teachers, although Irish dancing in the country may date from earlier. Most of the structures, including the New Zealand Dancing Board circa 1950, that paved the way to the contemporary structure of Irish dance in New Zealand originated in the 1950s and have developed since (Cullinane, 1987). Most current Irish dancing teachers are certified by An Coimisi�n and belong to the Irish Dancing Teachers Association of New Zealand (I.D.T.A.N.Z.); the first of these teachers to be certified generally took their examinations in Australia, after 1969. Almost all of the about 23 registered teachers live near Auckland, Wellington, or Christchurch; these seem to be the centers of Irish dance in New Zealand. Some classes are very small, such as the Tralee Dancers, which has about 20 students, ages 5 through 15, to the Kildunne School and the Connolly School, which each have somewhere between 70 and 80 students (New Zealand Irish Directory, 2001). From these numbers, it does not seem that New Zealand has experienced quite the boom that, for example, Australia or North America has seen, but this may be a misconception. However, if this is true, it may be due to several factors, mainly based upon geography-proximity to Ireland, small land/population base, etc. These factors have not necessarily affected the quality of the dancing; for example, Oliver Sach, who dances in Auckland, was able to place second in the 2001 North American Championships (Sach, 2001). The limited number of placements around the world of New Zealanders is probably due to a smaller competitor base and prohibitively expensive travel costs. 2000 was the 50th anniversary of the New Zealand National Irish Dancing Championships (originally the Christchurch Feis), in which there were about 430 competitors, approximately 40 of whom were Australian (Sach, 2001).
Irish dancing in Australia probably dates from the middle of the 1800s, and there are records of Irish dancing teachers from the turn of the century. One of the first Irish dancing bodies in Australia was the Irish National Dancing and National Dress Promoters Association of Victoria, which was founded in 1932. In 1946, the Irish Dancing Teachers� Association was founded (Cullinane, 1987). The main contemporary Irish dancing body in Australia is the Australian Irish Dance Association (AIDA), which was founded in 1968, and is registered with An Coimisi�n (AIDA, 2001), There are six branches of AIDA-Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia, and the over 130 registered teachers are divided between them. Probably because of the expense of flying to anywhere in the Northern Hemisphere from Australia, Australians have not placed as highly on the �world stage� as they might. However, in 1996, Conor Hayes was the first Australian man to win a world championship, (Cullinane, 1997), and also became the first Australian to perform with Riverdance (Riverdance, 2001). One of the most notable post-Riverdance shows, Gaelforce, is from Australia. All three of its original stars, who toured the world and brought it to its popularity, Timmy Manners, James Devine, and Fiona McIlkenny, were Australian (Celtic Caf�, 2001).
Kate McAleer, ADCRG, reports from Australia, �In my school I have dancers from over sixty different ethnic backgrounds, including indigenous aboriginal and Maori background dancers. In some cases one of their parents is Irish born or has Irish Descent but wherever they come from they embrace the dance style enthusiastically. Due to Australia�s long term diversity, many of our finest Teachers are from Non- Irish backgrounds for example, Queensland�s Cheryl Chang Watson, third generation Chinese Australian, Melbourne�s Anna Rabusin, Italian background, and Margaret Lahl, German Australian background teacher in Tasmania. . The large number of people teaching Irish Dancing in non-English speaking areas of Europe and Africa has proved the popularity of our dance style is not limited to Ireland�. According to McAleer, in 1993 there were less than 200 students in the Victoria region. In comparison, in 2001 there were 1200 registered dancers (McAleer, 2001). Such growth is comparable to that of the rest of the world. In a move somewhat counter to the general trend of expansion, Australia has closed its Championships to the rest of the World, apparently due to high rates of participation. Many New Zealanders, however, find this move to be unfortunate, however, because of the difficulty of traveling to other large championships around the world.
Canada and the United States are best discussed together, because the main step dance governing bodies (North American Feis Commission [dating from 1968]- NAFC and the Irish Dancing Teachers Association of North America [founded in 1964] - IDTANA, are both affiliated with An Coimisi�n. An Comhdhail also lists a North American region, but it is not very strong on this continent) are combined, and because there is such an overlap in competitions (Cullinane, 1987). Toronto is fairly close to Illinois and New York, and British Columbia is relatively close to California. In fact, there are schools (Comerford, Butler, etc.) which have students and teachers in both countries. There are seven North American regions (East, Mid-West, New England, Western US, Southern, Eastern Canada, and Western Canada). The Southern Region was created in 1996 to accommodate the post-Riverdance influx of dancers in that area. Each region has its own Oireachtas (�Regionals�), and can thus qualify dancers for the World Championships. There is also a North American Championship (�Nationals�). All NAFC feiseanna are closed to non-Coimisiun dancers, and there are stringent requirements for who may compete in any particular level. There are generally six levels- Beginner/Beginner 1, Beginner 2/Advanced Beginner, Novice, Prizewinner/Open, Preliminary Champion, and Open Champion. In some of the regions, the advanced beginner category, and new rules surrounding advancement into it, have been added recently, possibly to accommodate for demand, or to extend the competitive system so as to produce better dancers at the top. According to the North American Feis Commission schedule for 2001, 147 feiseanna were scheduled in the United States, and 25 were scheduled in Canada. The majority of Canadian feiseanna were to be held in Ontario, whereas American feiseanna are well distributed around the country but concentrated on the coastlines and in segments of the Midwest (NAFC, 2001).
There are an immense number of shows that have been developed in North America. Nearly every school (accredited or not) performs, and there are many professional touring shows of North American origin, including, but certainly not limited to Mark Howard�s Trinity Irish Dance Company (Chicago), Liam Harney�s Waves and CelticFusion (California), Needfire (Canada), and Dancing on Common Ground (United States). There are also a significant number of Canadians and Americans in each of the major touring shows (Lord of the Dance, Riverdance, etc.). These groups have been helped by the fact that the IDTANA (in 1997) made it legal to compete in NAFC feiseanna while performing in a show. Previously, �professional� dancers (generally teachers, who are still banned) were not allowed to compete, but now the rule has been more explicitly defined (IDTANA, 1998).
Ruth Garrett was the first North American woman to win a World Championship (Cullinane, 1997); she accomplished that feat in the early 1980s. Until 1997, when Therese O�Sullivan won, there were no other female American World Champions. Since then, however, Noelle Curran has been World champion twice (in 1998 and 1999), and Amy Siegel won in 1999. The last two dancers, both taught by Peter Smith in New Jersey, have the distinction of having won the Worlds, the All Irelands, and the (North American) Nationals in one year (Cicalese, 2001).
Ever since Michael Flatley, in 1974, and then Tim O�Hare, in both 1976 and 1977, won their World Championships, there has been a steady (if light) stream of North American male first placements. The early 1980s saw such notables as Liam Harney, in 1984, and Brian Grant, a three-time winner (1983, 1985, 1986) (Grant, 2001), and, just prior to the birth of Riverdance in 1994, John Timm and Stephen McAteer won their Worlds (Cullinane, 1997). Recently, Darren Smith won in 1997, and Michael Belvich, 1998 and 1999, and Paul Cusick, 1998, both placed first. In total, 11 North American men have won the World Championships. Most, if not all of these men danced in some of the highest age groups; it seems that North America has yet to produce a child World champion. North Americans do, however, commonly place in the top ten in all age categories.
Irish dance competition is generally very globalized, as dancers fly from competition to competition. Worldwide placements, while they sill may be unequally distributed, especially in the case of Australia and New Zealand, where the dancers may not be able to afford to travel so far three or four times, or even one time, a year, but, generally, the so-called �Emerald Barrier� (referring to the mistreatment and discrimination claimed mainly by North Americans, at such championships as the Worlds, in placement) is being broken, slowly but surely. For example, in the 1996 Worlds, there were only 8 North American, and once Australian, placements in the top three in all dances, out of a total of 60 placements (Conner, 1996). Thus, the total non-Irish/British Isles placement rate was at 14.9%. In the 2001 All Irelands (Coimisi�n), (the Worlds were cancelled in 2001), there were a total of 15 placements in the top three, out of 71 available (Coimisi�n, 2001). The placement rate, thus, jumped to 21.1%.
The world seems to be seeing a more homogenized crowd of winners, who travel to every competition. The global nature of placements is seen throughout the world, with the highest placements being very divided by most of the active Northern Hemispheric countries. For example, in out of 63 placements of female competitors in the 2000 North American Irish Dancing Championships (the top three dancers in each of 21 competitions), 25 of the dancers were American, 4 of the dancers were Canadian, 16 were English, 17 were Irish, and 1 was from New Zealand (Western U.S. Region, 2000).
Out of 69 placements of female competitors in the 2001 North American Championships (the top three dancers in each of 23 competitions), 18 of the dancers were American, 6 were Canadian, 23 were English, 21 were Irish, and 1 was Australian (Nationals, 2001). One might surmise that that the high number of foreign placements in the North American Championships is due to a lower standard of dancing in the US, which might leave the Irish and English a free zone to collect awards. However, one might also, alternately, note that these numbers are fairly similar to those for the All Irelands, 2001. There is heavy crossover between the highest placements in both competitions. It seems very likely that once a dancer achieves that kind of status in the world, there is heavy incentive to travel to every championship possible. Such luxuries are probably not available to any but the best, and so such dancers are able to show their countries receiving a disproportionately high number of placements. The number of Irish and English competitors was higher, though, in 2001 than in previous years, primarily because both the World Championships and the All Scotland Championships were cancelled, the latter due to the foot and mouth disease epidemic and the former due to a problem with location booking. Ironically, the 2001 All Ireland Championships (An Comhdhail) were also postponed, again because of the foot and mouth epidemic. These disturbances perhaps illustrate the truly international nature of Irish dance; were the competitors for the major Irish dance competitions primarily Irish in nationality, there would hardly have been a reason to halt any of the competitions (Comhdhail, 2001).
For the first time, An Coimisi�n is officially recognizing the extent of its globalization through competition; the 2002 Worlds are scheduled to be held in Glasgow, Scotland (Coimisi�n, 2001). In the future, the Irish Dancing Worlds might be held anywhere with a firm base of competitors; perhaps Canada, the United States, England, even New Zealand or Australia. Such a rolling base might help to eliminate the �home court� advantage currently enjoyed by those of Irish nationality.
So, having noting the immense global growth of Irish dance in the post-Riverdance era, and the previous expansion into North America, Australia, and New Zealand, one may discuss the effects of this growth, and of its causes-- namely popularization and commercialization. Shows such as Riverdance and media sources have obviously increased exposure to Irish dance. These shows have enjoyed immense popularity that is illustrated by the number of world-tours of shows, stays on Broadway, which have been fed by ongoing consumer demand. These shows have in turn served to sustain the form's position within the world of pop culture. As most of these shows are for-profit commercial ventures, and, as these shows are highly influential, so the tone of Irish dance has changed over the years. The shows have also very heavily indirectly influenced the nature of Irish dancing, through the immense increases in dancers and demand.
Some of the following generalizations are obviously marked by a Western United States bias; not all of these trends apply to every location in the world, although they do seem to be becoming well established in most areas of the world that are seeing large levels of growth in Irish dance. There are, of course, exceptions to every rule.
Irish dance seems to be one of the least constant styles of folk dance, in terms of movement itself. As opposed to such forms as Scottish dance, dances which are constant and (relatively) unchanging are in the minority. The few explicitly perpetuated dances, aside from beginner dances (which rarely vary from year to year, and are very similar across school lines) are called traditional set dances, are performed to very specific tunes, in generally universal speeds, and are not performed in the highest levels. These dances (the Blackbird, the Garden of Daisies, the Job of Journeywork, and the St. Patrick�s' Day are the Coimisiun choices; Comhdhail apparently has others as well) help maintain traditional stylistic roots. However, they are not the focal point of Irish dance competition and are rarely featured in performance. Also, these dances may have been stylized over time, so what is accepted as �traditional,� such as perhaps clicking one�s heels during the skipping in the set of the St. Patrick�s Day, maybe a completely recent fabrication. Such dances are not separate from the constant fluctuation of Irish dance.
Other solo dances have a tendency to evolve quickly and frequently. Special movements and styles often go in and out of vogue with attempts to find a "winning style". There are older movements, such as cross-keys, in which the feet are held close together on the ground, and one foot is turned inward and outward again as it passes backwards to end behind the other foot. These and other movements, while not having vanished, are certainly not common, even with attempts towards revival. Certain styles are also not seen very frequently, if at all, anymore, on a global scale. Some movements that seem to have almost completely disappeared include bent-knee jumps and side clicks. McAleer remembers �a type of jig in hard shoes, like the Light Jig but all on the one spot� (McAleer, 2001). Apparently, this used to be the first dance taught to beginners in Australia. New movements, often elaborations or combinations of preexisting steps tend to emerge quickly in the world of Irish dance. Dancers and teachers constantly try to push the limits of possibility. For example, one might turn a double click of the heels into a quadruple click, or merging a butterfly, similar to a cross-key, but as a jump, with a cut or some other ending. Some of these stunts permeate the general technique, and some remain isolated, but they seem to be the fodder for the constant evolution that Irish dance undergoes. In current vogue in both Australia and North America are toe stands/walks, and variations that include gestures of the leg while on the tip of the fiberglass toe. Sue Brotherton, TCRG, notes the lifting of legs above the waist (very high leaps and kicks) itself as being new (Brotherton, 2001). Past trends included the introduction of an extreme number of clicks in to dancing in the 80s, especially after the introduction of bubble heels, which were later banned by An Coimisiun. Clicks are now seen as slightly commonplace and are not currently overemphasized; their rise and fall shows the envelopment of a fad by the general technique. At the beginning of the century, it was not uncommon for a hand to be held on the hip while dancing; some performers even carried small baskets while dancing (Cullinane, 1996). Because of the more rigid stylization that has come with competition, such affectations would probably be currently mocked, or, at the very least, would be ground for disqualification in all competitions but the dance drama. In the beginning of the century, steps were sometimes extremely constrained to fit small dancing areas. Dancers were specifically commended for fitting in the smallest area possible (Cullinane, 1987). Currently, as stages have moved from the backs of trucks to larger, so has the scope of the dancing expanded. Dancers who lack the ability to "travel" around the platform are now generally not awarded placements.
Also, large shifts in thought and perception of dances are not new to Irish dance; within this century, the community has seen the shift of one of the only currently gender-identified dances, the slip jig, from entirely male performance to primarily female performance.
One of the most ironic aspects of Irish dance is the continual redefinition of the word �traditional,� especially where movement is concerned, and even in reference to costume. Almost anything created by a qualified Irish dance teacher has the potential of entering the �traditional� vocabulary, save, perhaps, hand motions or floor work. While there are certain confines, directions for, and limits upon what may be classified as Irish dance (including being fairly limited to the frontal plane, the bodily rigidity, turned out feet, standing on the tips of the toes, etc.), almost any movement that survives longer than 10 years is generally enveloped by the �traditional� moniker.
There is becoming more of an acceptance for movements developed by North Americans and others who choreograph outside of Ireland, as these dancers are more and more often being seen as something other than auxiliary components of the Irish dance system.
The character of Irish dance has been observed to have changed, in some cases dramatically, in only the past few years. Donna Smith-Home, a parent of dancers, observed that, "I think the dancing style has become more athletic as a result of the popularization. I think that there previously was more of an emphasis on grace and beauty of movement. Now it seems that even in the traditional ladies dances, ie. slip jig, that the steps involve more technically difficult steps that give it an overall athletic look rather than a smooth, elegant look."(Smith-Home, 2001) Others have commented on the growing athleticism of Irish dance; higher leaps, stronger trebles, more movements and lift within a jump are all ideals that Irish dancers strive for, and are probably more easily found in the competitive world, with the entrance of more (and possibly more talented) dancers.
Brotherton commented that, �Dance styles for both boys and girls are often more aggressive, with emphasis on covering the stage, sharpness, almost a driven quality. Watching a tape of a world champion from the late eighties the other day, I was struck by the thought that, although she showed a comfort and mastery of the movements, there was almost a more laid back quality to her dancing. Precision and skill were apparent, and she "sold" her dance well, but she did not have the attack that I see, and that many teachers emphasize. I think this comes from the push to "sell" your package to the judges, whether it's a costume or a step� (Brotherton, 2001). This �push� and �drive� may be seen either in a negative or positive light, but certainly the tone and character of the dance is impacted by it. Although Irish dancers are still consumed by being light, by never letting their weight lapse down into the floor, by almost floating above the stage, sometimes there cannot be a compromise between this ideal and the amount of difficult jumps one can insert into a step.
The method of transmission of Irish dance has been, of course, most commonly, the television, and that mode of transit of course has left its mark on the way Irish dance has developed since. Television seems to demand flashiness, stars, and both of these are exemplified in many of the videos most commonly broadcasted (Lord of the Dance being one of the most striking examples). The media also sets standards for bodies, especially, and this has had an impact upon the minds of young dancers as well. In its previous incarnation in the United States, for example, Irish dance, as a strictly cultural endeavor, welcomed dancers of all shapes and sizes. Now, however, although the body ideal is certainly not as strict as in, for example, ballet, there seems to be far less variation. Those larger dancers that do compete seem to win less often, and there seem to be fewer and fewer heavy dancers competing in championships. The cast of Riverdance has become noticeably thinner over the years. All of these impressions combined must have some effect upon the mind of the young dancer. However, the body ideal for Irish dancers is underdeveloped; it is very difficult to be extremely thin and have the power required for even the lightshoe dancing, at the most advanced stages. Many Irish dancers have very well developed (and large) calves. It will be interesting to see how the body ideal develops within the next few years.
Although, in many places around the world, before Riverdance, there were adult competitors, Irish dance has certainly expanded within that demographic. Obviously, children were not the only ones witnessing Irish dance for the first time on television and in the touring shows. Where in the past, Irish dancers generally either began and stopped within the span of childhood, or began at the same time as their children, and generally studied in a less than serious manner, today many adults are taking up Irish dancing for the pleasure of the style itself. Many of these new participants begin in their twenties, and many study the form seriously, some even achieving a level of technique that rivals children. Some of these dancers took lessons as children, and find themselves reviving their former interest. Although these dancers are not allowed to compete in more �serious� solo competitions, such as championships, regionals, nationals, and the Worlds, they are allowed to compete on ceili teams in many regional championships, and in most feiseanna. Although there are few all-adult schools in North America, many schools in Europe, such as the one run by Barbara Butkis, are composed entirely of adults. Ashley Middleton, a dancer, notes that the idea of Irish dance as a sport of children alone is also fairly new; in the distant past, most dancers were adults, and it has been only recently (within the past 70 years or so) that the shift to primarily adolescent dancers has taken place (Middleton, 2001). Such a shift away from the teenage group, then, while it may seem anti-traditional, may in fact be a return to historical custom. However, other regions of the world, specifically New Zealand, may not be experiencing such a resurgence.
Another phenomenon that has developed within the past few years is the emergence on Irish dancing camps, such as Gaelic Roots and Camp Rince Ceol, both in the Eastern United States. Such camps allow students access to either a very large number of experts in various fields, or, alternately, to celebrity dancers from the shows. Also, more and more schools are beginning to offer their own in-school workshops, featuring successful teachers from around the world who may help with technique, steps, or both. While this can be quite positive, as it allows students access to levels of training beyond what their teacher might be able to provide, it can also encourage a stylistic standardization, and homogenization (towards a more desirable form) of Irish dance around the world. When teachers go beyond the level of sharing, to either paying for, or co-opting (through observation) a style, instead of creating their own variation, there is less from which to assemble future developments. McAleer noted that she doesn�t �approve of the mass production world wide of what teachers believe will be winning steps, often emanating from the same teacher based in Ireland or the UK and available to the highest bidder. Those who don't have confidence in their own abilities to create dance steps need to go back to the basics and develop from the earliest grades a particular "Look" for their school� (Middleton, 2001). Although there is certainly nothing wrong with the transmission of certain aesthetics, it is when variation is discouraged that the form is slowly diminished. Variation is fuel for change, and Irish dance is a style that thrives on constant transformation.
The effects of Riverdance and the other shows can also easily be seen in the development of costumes. Recent rules of An Coimisiun illustrate the burgeoning diversity. It is currently �illegal� to have a costume without a full front or back section, not of traditional (heavy) materials, with a skirt further than 4 inches above the middle of the knee, or bearing a neckline that reveals the collarbone. Irish dancers must also wear �appropriate� underwear (Antonio Pacelli, 2001). �Dancewear�, such as leotards, is also prohibited in several regions, but this rule is more commonly broken than most, perhaps because a uniform consisting of a leotard and a skirt is far more financially accessible to most than the average class costume. Such rules as these indicate the immense numbers of dancers �experimenting� with costume in the post-Riverdance era. Although obviously not viewed highly by An Coimisiun, such the idea of dancers expanding common notions about Irish dance on their own in not absolutely a �bad� notion. A form that thrives on change should possibly see fodder for the future in even the most superficial alterations.
In many ways, the Irish dancing lifestyle has become prohibitively expensive. The Irish dancing (competitive) aesthetic has become ever flashier, neon, glittery, stiff, and graphic. Students are expected, at least when they move to the highest level of dancing, to compete many times a year, in many locations, wearing ever more expensive garments (over-$1000 dresses) and shoes (softshoes are priced at about $40, and hardshoes range from $100 to $150), as well as numerous accessories, including, but not limited to, tiaras, wigs, stick on jewels, and rhinestoned socks. Although not all championship dancers fulfill this overblown stereotype, the dancer who wears a simple costume and/or rarely competes is something of a rarity. There was a small movement to make competitive outfits resemble those of Jean Butler or (for the more adventurous) Bernadette Flynn, but it has not been well received. While in the past, as recently as the mid-nineties (in North America), mothers were generally expected to either make their daughters� solo costumes and school costumes by hand, or hire someone to do so, this is not often the case anymore. Such a tradition obviously limited the complexity of Irish dancing costume to what the mothers were willing to, or skilled enough to, create. Erstwhile dancers were also often expected to �earn� their costumes in many places around the world (although not in Ireland, where solo costumes have been worn by even beginning dancers for a longer period of time). Now, however, there is beginning to be a shift more towards the Irish mode, and more and more North American teachers are allowing their dancers to obtain elaborate dresses in levels as low as Novice. The increased number of feiseanna in any given area increases the amount of feis fees, and also, possibly, of travel costs to �close� (within driving or short flying range) feiseanna. McAleer reflected, �I think that the cost of having students taught Irish Dancing is for the most part reasonable. It is the cost of the associated products, which add up. Locally there is a trend for families to opt not to stay in the Feis Cycle with ever increasing entry fees, new shoes, unrealistically expensive and elaborate costumes plus all the accessories that go with it. To assist families to stay involved I carry out the Irish Dancing Commission Examinations, set tuition fees according to family size and income and aim to keep costs to a minimum. We also offer children the opportunity to perform at Community Festivals and other events. It is all too easy for teachers and pupils to get caught up in the whole commercial aspect of Irish Dancing and this is causing many families to turn away from the dance style� (McAleer, 2001). These examinations, while popular throughout the world, are not normally offered in North America.
Brotherton noted, �Many schools and teachers recycle shoes (thank god kids generally outgrow them before they get worn out), so this can help defray some costs. School costumes, and sometimes even fancier costumes, may be purchased by the teacher and then rented to students� (Brotherton, 2001). Certainly, there are other means of lowering costs, such as repairing shoes and buying used solo dresses, but these practices do not entirely alleviate the expense.
The idea of Irish dance costume as "tradition" is also an invention; while knot work, which remains on some dresses, but has rapidly diminished in frequency since Riverdance. In its place in designs are everything from literary characters, to abstract and geometric designs, to cartoon depictions of leprechauns and fast food. The bright colors that dominate the dresses are obviously far from "traditional"; the earlier Irish hardly had access to many different types of neon satin. The practice of stiffening the dresses so that they stick out to the side was hardly ever seen until the beginning of the 1990s. Also, the Irish are hardly known for their historically excessive use of diamantes, crystals, rhinestones, or sequins, or of metallic fabrics. All of these are recent adaptations to the culture (most having been made extreme only in the post-Riverdance era). They have all be encompassed within the common ideas about "traditional" Irish dancing costume, and yet they are all extremely recent conventions and additions.
After Riverdance, there was, of course, more exposure to people not of Irish descent, and also (obviously) to people not of European descent at all. Although it is difficult to gauge the historic ethnic diversity of participants, past and present, it does seem to several observers that Irish dance is becoming more varied. More and more, dancers of Chicana/o, African, Asian, and many other heritages are being seen on competition floors. In some countries (such as Germany), there are very few new participants who are of Irish heritage; the new Irish dancers are not necessarily springing from Irish �migr� communities, it seems.
Brotherton described some negative reactions to the growing cultural and racial diversity of Irish step dance. �I had an African-American girl (very dark skinned) compete recently (I was not present), and other parents told me they felt my African-American girl and her parents were "watched", and that the girl was perhaps discriminated against in the competition. This girl has won in a competition, although, before this happened, I had worried about the possibility of discrimination. As a teacher of Asian, Hispanic, and mixed race kids, it's something I think about. Very sadly, one extremely prominent Irish teacher (students in starring roles in major shows) said that, one year, backstage at the worlds, he heard another well-known Belfast-based Irish dance personality say "it's an abomination", referring to the marriage of an Irish woman with a Japanese man (a union that produced two daughters, one a chorus member of Riverdance, and the other a top ten world champion)� (Brotherton, 2001). Maria McAteer, who originally hails from Scotland, but whose father was from Trinidad, remembers being something of an oddity, that she was watched more closely than the others. �Probably half the reason the audience went quiet when I stepped on stage was because I looked so different, they were probably thinking, "What�s that brown girl doing in an Irish dance competition? " I never thought about this at the time, I just loved the silence before the music started, then I would take off and dance� (www.antoniopacelli.com). Obviously, there are both sensitive and racist people in all disciplines, but Irish dance is one form that has been, until the recent past, and even into the present, almost entirely performed and studied by people of European descent. When these issues come to the fore, as more and more ethnically diverse people are attracted to the style, new conflicts may arise. Thankfully, such opinions do not seem to be very often vocalized. Unfortunately, though, there is, in Irish dance, a theoretical opportunity for dancers to be silently discriminated against via adjudication. There might, obviously, be little means to counter such discrimination, aside from instituting nebulous and possibly unenforceable regulations. Hopefully, this is not and will not be a common problem facing newer dancers. Being of an interesting ethnicity might even be seen as beneficial by certain adjudicators who are interested in expanding the reach of the form. The idea of a multicultural Irish dance is, while not entirely new, a developing phenomenon that has been and can be only solidified further by the continuing global expansion of Irish dance.
Certainly the new popularity of Irish dance has been a financial boon for instructors. More demand means more performances, more students, more of an opportunity to win. Also, the new financial success of performances gives dancers an incentive to compete and study longer, with the hopes of possibly being accepted to one of the major traveling shows. This, of course, helps to strengthen the competitive system itself, and to produce "better", more skilled, dancers. However, teachers and shows must remain popular to keep strengthening the system, or to simply perpetuate the success. In the past, at least in areas outside of Ireland and the British Isles, though there seemed to be more of an emphasis on culture, on history, on community, as opposed to flashiness and modernity. The dancing was perhaps less well developed, yes, but there was also not as much pressure to fit into a commercial or competitive ideal, especially during performances. Several dancers have commented that they feel expected to perform references to Riverdance within their choreographies. Dancers come into the form expecting a certain aesthetic, and the public also expects a similar set of themes. However, the pressures to adapt to the audience conception only bear when the audience has �knowledge� of the form, so, unless the faddish popularity of Irish dance continues indefinitely, these �limitations� to show choreography are sure to end sometime in the future. Probably the immense numbers of new dancers is more than enough compensation for having to accommodate the audience�s new perception of the form. The fact that the audience now has some limited idea of what is supposed to be occurring on the stage might also be a positive change. Teachers must remain �exciting�, and this forces to consider performing works they might never have tried in the past; it forces to �push the envelope�. Alternately, because there is more access of students to examples of �standards�, teachers must also make sure they are teaching �valid� or �current�. Thus there may be less teacher choice in terms of style, because of checks made by students. Positive or negative, more innovation has probably come from this than standardized stagnation, but the trends are generally aimed in one direction, and that is not the direction of softness or simplicity.
Irish dancing has progressed a long way since 1994, both in terms of mileage and in style. Many changes have accompanied this expansion. However, this seems to be the path of Irish dance; Irish dance is always fluctuating, reinventing itself to serve a larger audience. Irish dancers are continuing to, and have always, �invented tradition�.
References
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