LESSON OBJECTIVES:

503.1 Comprehend key tenets of the theories of war advanced by Sun Tzu, Jomini, and Clausewitz.

503.11 Explain The Relationship Between National Policy And Warfare.

They all recognized that politics and war were inextricably linked. Each recognized that political concerns drove the decision to engage in war and in a large measure dictated its objectives, but the planning and execution of combat operations had to be accomplished by military professionals.

Sun Tzu: The sovereign exerts a positive moral influence on his people, a unity of purpose is achieved which is essential to the successful prosecution of wars. He saw war as the logical extension of the ruler's power, realizing that if one has to destroy the state to save it, then the objective of war becomes nonsensical.

Jomini: Recognized the role of statesmen in deciding to go to war, establishing national objectives, and marshaling popular support for the effort. He also understood that political and moral factors could influence military results.

Clausewitz: Political leadership was responsible for determining national objectives and deciding whether the military was an appropriate tool (means) to accomplish those objectives (ends). He believed that politicians shared responsibility (with the military leadership) for ensuring that military operations remained consistent with national objectives.

503.12 Relate Clausewitz's Concept Of Center Of Gravity With Jomini's Concept Of Decisive Points And Sun Tzu's Heirarchy Of Strategies.

Clausewitz: allowed the context of the war to determine the center of gravity. He believed that the center of gravity was most likely to be the enemy's army, capital, or leaders, depending on the nature of the conflict.

Jomini: fundamental principle of throwing the mass of his forces against the decisive points in the theater of operations. Essentially the one great principle of strategy underlying all operations of war is "to throw by strategic movements the mass of an army, successively, upon the decisive point of a theater of war, and also upon the communications of the enemy." From a strictly military standpoint, points were judged to be potentially decisive if they dominated key terrain (e.g. a river, a valley, a fortress, a capital) or were key to the scheme of maneuver (e.g. flanks for armies on the offensive; the object being defended for armies on the defensive). Jomini stated that "another class of decisive points … are determined more from political than from strategic considerations: They play a great part in most coalitions, and influence the operations and plans of cabinets. They may be called political objective points."

The difference between a Jominian decisive point and a Clausewitzian center of gravity can be illustrated in this way: It might be possible to gain access to a Clausewitzian center of gravity (e.g. his army) through a successfully attacking a Jominian decisive point. (e.g. flank of enemy army on offensive).

Sun Tzu: His centers of gravity, or "offensive strategies" were: (in descending order) the enemy's strategy, his allies, his army, and-as a last resort-his cities. He recognized that the key was to dominate the center of gravity by maneuvering in such a way as to place the enemy at a decisive disadvantage. This would either preclude the need to fight, or ensure decisive, relatively low cost victory if combat occurred. For Sun Tzu, an enemy's weakest point, not his strongest, was his center of gravity. ."

503.13 Summarize The Classical Theorists Views Concerning Warfare As An Art Form Or Scientific Endeavor.

Overall: All three believed war was an art, but they all did believe there were basic principles and processes in war that could be studied. In that regard, and fact they are called "theorists," does indicate they also saw war as somewhat of a scientific endeavor.

Sun Tzu: (ART) "five fundamental factors" as they relate to oneself and one's enemy: moral influence, weather, terrain, doctrine, and command. Once the five fundamental factors were studied, it was up to the general to create situations that would allow the strategy to be carried out. This was the true art of war, and included deception, maneuver, adaptability to the situation, exploiting weakness, and even psychological operations - up to the general to create situations that would allow the strategy to be carried out.

Jomini: (ART) War is a great drama, in which a thousand physical or moral causes operate more or less powerfully, and which cannot be reduced to mathematical calculations. "The only reasonable one is that which, founded upon the study of military history, admits a certain number of regulating principles, but leaves to natural genius the greatest part in the general conduct of a war without trammeling it with exclusive rules … nothing is better calculated to kill natural genius and to cause error to triumph, than those pedantic theories, based upon the false idea that war is a positive science, all the operations of which can be reduced to infallible calculations

Clausewitz: (ART) Clausewitz perceived war in its simplest form as a duel, with the aim of "compelling the enemy to do our will." He treats war, in its theoretical sense, as a very simple thing, and then introduces a number of factors that tend to remove war from its "ideal type" and make it "real." These might be called "conditioning factors," He discusses fear, uncertainty, and physical danger (illustrated by his description of a modern battlefield-something with which he was very familiar); but the three most often cited are, of course, fog, friction, and chance.

Clausewitz's allusion to the fog of war had a literal and metaphorical meaning. In a literal sense, Clausewitz was referring to the smoke and haze that obscures the battlefield, making it difficult, if not impossible, for commanders to obtain an accurate reading of events. Metaphorically, Clausewitz used the idea of fog to represent the obscurity that exists even when one's visibility is unlimited; after all, a commander can never be sure exactly where an enemy is or what he plans to do. The concept of friction is central to Clausewitz's discussion of the difference between real war and war on paper. Friction is one of the key reasons Clausewitz was so averse to the compounding of maxims and formulaic approaches to war.

503.14 Discuss The Classical Theorists' Views Concerning The Characteristics Required Of A General.

Sun Tzu: Most important to the commander was wisdom, a quality which enabled him to "thrive on chaos," reacting to the situation at hand and adapting to changing circumstances. Other favorable qualities included sincerity, humanity, courage, and strictness; also humility (sharing on the lot of his troops).

Jomini: Jomini believed that high moral courage, great resolution, and physical courage were the three essential qualities for a general. Above all he should be perfectly grounded in the principles of the art of war.

Clausewitz: The most effective counterweight to the effects of friction lies in the "genius" of the commander. Clausewitz defines military genius as "all those gifts of mind and temperament that in combination bear on military activity." Among these gifts Clausewitz includes courage, intellectual powers, determination, presence of mind, staunchness, endurance, strength of character, and the ability to make rapid, accurate decisions.

503.2 Comprehend the impact of contextual and operational art elements upon the development of their theories

503.21 Explain How Sun Tzu's Theory Of War Reflects The Warring States Period In Ancient China.

China was slowly transforming itself from an area composed of numerous feudal fiefdoms to one consisting of a handful of more powerful "states". The size and resources of these new states permitted them to raise, train, and equip standing armies led not by feudal lords, but by professional military men with similar concerns and strategies. The morale and welfare of the troops became paramount. Sun Tzu provided a strategic theory and operational doctrine that would allow generals who mastered them to ensure their troops' well being.

503.22 Summarize the impact of the Napoleonic Era and the Napoleonic Wars on the ideas of Jomini and Clausewitz.

The Napoleonic Era began the transformation towards near total wars in which the emotions and resources of the entire nation were involved. This political revolution, combined with a concurrent industrial revolution which permitted the mass production of goods, resulted in a military revolutionary as well. A primary characteristic of this military revolution was the formation of huge, conscript armies (the "nation in arms" or levee en masse) fueled by nationalist spirit and supported by an industrial base which permitted it to conduct sustained operations over greater distances than ever before. Large armies were only one aspect of the military revolution. The sheer size of these armies dictated a larger, more professional, merit-based officer corps be formed to train and lead them in battle. Napoleon was the first to recognize and properly harness the force generated by these three simultaneous revolutions. Clausewitz and Jomini sought to analyze his success, and develop new ways of thinking about the proper conduct of war and its relationship to policy.