LESSON OBJECTIVES:
502.1 COMPREHEND CRITICAL ANALYSIS.
502.11 Explain the 3-step Clauswitzian analysis process.
Clausewitz recognized that successful military leaders possessed a thorough understanding of warfare obtained through a combination of personal experience and the study of historical campaigns. In order to provide some structure to the latter, he developed a 3-step critical analysis process which provides a useful format for assessing and discussing military theory and operations.
According to Clausewitz, when conducting an analysis, one must
first identify pertinent facts. One must then determine the root
causes surrounding those facts. and, finally, suggest other, better
alternatives. In other words, the three step process is:
STEP 1. Discover and establish the facts (the "what happened")
STEP 2. Trace effects (the facts) back to their root causes (the "why")
STEP 3. Propose alternatives (the "how better").
502.12 Distinguish between contextual elements and operational
art elements citing examples of each. (Weaver/pollock reading)
To aid the military planner in deriving military objectives from the strategic objectives provided to them, our model identifies six "contextual elements.
Determining the military objective is the focus of a campaign
plan. Surprisingly, this is difficult for several reasons. First,
strategic objectives are defined by political leadership and may
often appear vague and unclear. Second, political considerations
may result in strategic objectives that are not based upon clearly
defined endstates. Third, military objectives must align with
these strategic objectives or the entire campaign process breaks
down or becomes irrelevant. Such problems with "congruency"
may disrupt the planning process by creating confusion, and potentially
cause military operations to fail.
Definitions: Contextual elements are those elements that affect military operations--but are usually outside the influence of the military commander In essence, contextual elements are what the commander is stuck with, or what's above his paygrade.
Operational Art Elements are those elements which can be influenced by the commander to varying degrees.
Contextual Elements:
Politics:
EXAMPLE
The most graphic demonstration of the influence of politics on
military planning can be seen in former Secretary of Defense Casper
Weinberger's six major tests for employing US forces abroad. His
tests focused on questions of vital interests, clear objectives,
and domestic support as important criteria for US military interventions.
International Relationships
EXAMPLE
General Norman Schwartzkopf had to overcome while preparing for DESERT STORM. The delicacy of maintaining an Arab coalition against fellow Arabs required political and military leaders to exercise caution and recognize constraints which do not exist when acting unilaterally.
Sociocutural Norms
EXAMPLE
In the 1980s President Reagan similarly invoked images from the popular movie "Star Wars" when he labeled the USSR "the Evil Empire."
Military leaders must guard against "mirror-imaging"
when developing and executing operations. People tend to view
the world through the lens of their own history and culture. To
deal with sociocultural issues, the military planner should consider
the behavioral norms of a country.
Physical Environment
EXAMPLE
US attempts to cut Viet Cong supply lines on the Ho Chi Minh Trail
failed in part because the jungle, slash burning, and fickle weather
conditions reduced on-station times for US aircraft.
Leadership
EXAMPLE
During the Napoleonic Wars, leadership was a comparatively simple
concern since monarch and general were often the same person.
Economics
EXAMPLE
DESERT STORM. American politicians circled the globe soliciting
military support and financial contributions for the war effort.
Planning requires an understanding of both our economy and that
of our adversary.
Operational Art Elements
Logistics
EXAMPLE
In Brute Force: Allied Strategy and Tactics in the World War II,
John Ellis argues the United States won the war because it overwhelmed
its enemies with its ability to generate war materiel.
Technology
EXAMPLE
Technology is not limited to technological advancement, but also
includes identifying military applications for new technologies
and making necessary changes to military doctrine and organizational
structures. Computer systems provide new abilities to collect
and exploit data which are impacting on the conduct of war from
senior command levels down to the individual ship, aircraft, or
tank.
Information
EXAMPLE
Public access to worldwide news networks is forcing planners
to reduce casualties of all types in order to sustain popular
support for military operations.
Targeting Science
EXAMPLE
DESERT STORM. Stealth applications and precision targeting and
munitions are becoming more important because they tend to reduce
casualties and collateral damage.
Deception
EXAMPLE
Allied deception activities planned and executed in support of
the Normandy invasion.
Measures of Merit
EXAMPLE
One of the first goals of the DESERT STORM air war was to knock
out the Iraqi capital's electrical power. The lights going out
in Baghdad on live television served as a good measure that we
had achieved our desired effect.
502.13 Understand the relationship between the concepts
of Revolutions in Military Affairs (RMA) and Military Technical
Revolutions(MTR) (Krepinevich reading)
While Krepinevich only uses the term "Military Technical
Revolution" to describe his concept, it is useful to
distinguish between the "instigating forces" which drive
the incorporation of new technologies into military systems. We
will therefore add the term "Revolution in Military Affairs"
(RMA) to our lexicon. While numerous references will only refer
to MTRs, we use that term only in discussing REVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE IN MILITARY TECHNOLOGY RESULTING FROM THE DIRECT APPLICATION
OR MODIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY ORIGINALLY DESIGNED FOR NON-MILITARY
PURPOSES. The term RMA, on the other hand, will be used
to refer to REVOLUTIONARY CHANGE IN MILITARY TECHNOLOGY RESULTING
FROM THE APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPED IN RESPONSE TO A
PREVIOUSLY IDENTIFIED MILITARY NEED. A simple way to think
of this distinction is as follows: In MTRs, technology inspires
military application; in RMAs military requirements inspire technological
development.
Typically, four elements comprise both MTR and RMA. These are:
An Example of a MTR/RMA is provided below:
1. Science/Technology -- Wright Brothers' "Flyer"
The combination of the internal combustion engine , advanced aerodynamics,
and external catapults resulted in a properly designed, manned,
heavier than air machine which flew under its own power.
2. Application -- Reconnaissance and Air Interdiction
The Wright brothers toured Europe in 1909 and licensed manufacture
of their aircraft to an Italian company, which in turn sold aircraft
to the Italian Army. These aircraft were employed in the Italo-Turkish
War of 1912 where they supported the Army by providing aerial
reconnaissance. On their forth mission, they dropped grenades
on Turkish positions in the first air interdiction mission. European
nations looked on and recognized the military potential of the
airpower.
3. New tactics/operational concept - Counter Air, Interdiction, Strategic Bombing
By 1916, the concepts of air superiority and interdiction were
developed along with the tactics to execute them. By 1918, the
concepts and tactics associated with close air support, and massed
aerial operations had also matured. At the close of W.W.I, most
of the major roles currently executed by the USAF had been developed
along with their associated tactics. During the interwar years
many people developed predictive theories on the use of Air Forces.
Building on these predictive theories, the Air Corps Tactical
School (ACTS) specifically developed the "industrial web"
concept in support of strategic bombardment. The ideas of three
highly influential "air pioneers" and the ACTS will
be studied in TH 508.
4. Organizational impacts - Establishment of Independent Air Forces
The USAAF was given partial autonomy over the employment of US Army Air Forces in 1935 with the establishment of GHQ AF and full operational autonomy in 1942 after the Operation TORCH debacle in North Africa. After 1942, independent air operations resulted in significant improvements in the employment of airpower at the strategic and operational levels. Strategic bombardment took the war to the enemy's heartland, and while continuing to provide support to major ground operations.