Ancient
Middle Ages
Renaissance

Links to Women Philosophers of Middle Ages
Beatrice of Nazareth biography
Birgitta of Sweden biography
Catherine of Siena biography
Christine Pisan biography
Hadeych of Antwerp biography
Heloise biography
Herrad of Hohenbourg
Hildegard of Bingen biography
Julian of Norwich
Marguerite of Navarre biography
Margaret More Roper biography
Margery Kemp biography
Marie le Bars de Gourney
Metchtild of Magdeburg biography
Murasaki Shikibu
Olivia Sabuco de Nantes
Barrera Roswitha of Gandersheim biography
Theresa of Avila biography
Vittoria Colonna biography
Bibliography of Internet Sites Consulted http://www.netsrq.com/~dbois/pisan.html http://geopages.com/Athens/Forum/9974/middle.html
http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/subjects/women/women.html
http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/heroine.html
http://cweb.middlebury.edu/bulgakov/navarre.html
http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/margery.htm http://sangha.net/messengers/st-theresa.html

Ancient ~
Themistoclea Ancient sources point to women as active participants, playing a central role in the development of early Pythagorean philosophy. Pythagoras produced a school of philosophy that was religious and mystical and the Pythagoreans made important contributions to mathematics, musical theory, and astronomy. What is not commonly known however is that there exists a record that Pythagoras acquired the greater part of his ethical doctrines from Themistoclea, the Priestess of Delphi, and that what he taught he had heard from her. Theano of Crotona Theano of Crotona, the wife of Pythagoras, was a member (along with her three daughters) of the original Pythagorean cult. There is a document attributed to Theano in which she discusses metaphysics, and there are records of her many written works in which she expresses her views on marriage, sex, women, and ethics. Upon the death of Pythagoras, Theano, alongside her two sons, became the director of the Pythagorean school. Diotima of Mantinea In his work Symposium, Plato named Diotima of Mantinea as Socrates’s mentor. It has been the assumption of contemporary historians that Diotima was a fictional character. However, there is credible evidence that she in truth existed. The origin of the suggestion that she was fictional has been traced to a 15th century Humanist, and until that time it had been accepted by historians that Diotima had undeniably existed.

Aspasia of Miletus Aspasia of Miletus was an influential intellectual, active in the inner circles of ancient political and intellectual life at the time of Plato. She was a leading member of the Periclean circle, and thus, with others, a co-architect of the Sophistic movement. Pericles, the powerful and popular leader of Athens, sought her out as first his mistress, and then his wife. She was considered very knowledgeable about matters of state and she taught rhetoric to Pericles. Philosophers of her time called her brilliant and renowned, the "mistress of eloquence." Socrates and his friends visited her often while she taught him rhetoric and philosophy. At one point, Aspasia was tried for impiety and acquitted after Paricles came to her defense. She died in 401 BC and today is memorialized in a fresco over the portal of the University of Athens in Greece. Aesara of Lucania Aesara of Lucania was a late Pythagorean (the late Pythagoreans existed roughly between 425 BC and 100 AD) who applied the normative principle of harmonia. Harmonia is the principle "of all the things that are," including geometry, arithmetic, music, and the cosmos. With ethics grounded in pragmatism, Aesara wrote The Book on Human Nature, which presented an intuitive natural law theory. She argued that by analyzing the nature of the soul we will understand the nature of law and of justice at the individual, familial, and social levels. Aesara showed that harmonia is the principle of law, justice, and human psychology. Phyntis of Sparta Phyntis of Sparta wrote On the Moderation of Women. Perictione 1 Perictione 1 (who some historians believe was Plato’s mother) wrote On the Harmony of Women.

Theano II Theano II, another late Pythagorean philosopher, raised the question of whether it was an individual’s responsibility to live one’s life according to whichever moral theory best takes into account one’s special circumstances. She showed that harmonia is the principle underlying human moral psychology and education.

Hypatia of Alexandria Hypatia of Alexandria lived in Alexandria, the capital of Egypt, in the 4th century AD. Alexandria at that time was the literary and scientific center of the world, containing numerous palaces, the Alexandrian Library and Museum, influential schools of philosophy, rhetoric, and other branches of learning. Hypatia was Alexandria’s most eminent neo-platonic philosopher and mathematician. She was renowned before the age of 30, in intellectual communities from as far away as Libya and Turkey. This was a time of great social and religious turmoil as the Christians gained strength in the region. The emperor forbade pagan cult practices in Egypt and rioting broke out between the Christians and the pagans. While the Roman Christian government persecuted Jews and Pagans, the government honored Hypatia with an unprecedented, paid, public position as the head of the neo-platonic school of Plotinus. This was all the more significant because the government of Alexandria was Christian and Hypatia was a pagan. She headed the prestigious institution for 15 years as students, both male and female, traveled from afar to study under her. She taught geometry, mathematics, the works of Plato, Aristotle, neo-Platonism, astronomy, and mechanics. Hypatia met an early and gruesome death at the hands of a mob of monks who pulled her from her chariot, drug her into a church, stripped her of her clothing, hacked her body to pieces with sharp shells, then took her dismembered body to another location and burned it. Unfortunately, although Hypatia was known as the greatest philosopher of her day, her teachings and writings were virtually ignored by historians of philosophy for almost 1500 years.

Asclepigenia of Athens Asclepigenia of Athens was a younger contemporary of Hypatia. Asclepigenia taught in the neo-Platonic school in Athens, which was headed by her father. As a Pagan philosopher, she attempted to understand and master the "secret" principles of metaphysics which controlled the universe. Asclepigenia applied magic and theurgic principles to affect fate and she applied her knowledge of Plato and Aristotle to the great religious and metaphysical questions raised by Christian ethical theory. She believed that fates were potentially changeable if one had a clear understanding of metaphysics, cosmology, magic, and theurgy. She tended more toward mysticism, magic, and contemplation of the mysteries of Platonic and Aristotelian metaphysics. Upon the death of her father, Asclepigenia, along with her brother and a colleague, inherited the direction of the Academy, and her most famous student was the philosopher, Proclus.

Arete of Cyrene Arete of Cyrene was the daughter of Aristipuss, a student and friend of Socrates, who was also present at Socrates’s death. Aristipuss founded and headed the Cyrenaic school in Cyrene, which is now northeastern Libya. The school was one of the earliest proponents of hedonism, and after his death Arete succeeded him as the head of the school. She taught natural and moral philosophy for 30 years, wrote 40 books, and counted among her pupils 110 philosophers. She was held in such high regard that upon her death her countrymen inscribed on her tomb an epitaph that declared she was the splendor of Greece and possessed the beauty of Helen, the virtue of Thirma, the pen of Aristippus, the soul of Socrates, and the tongue of Homer.

Julia Domna During the 3rd century AD Julia Domna was a Syrian girl, who at the age of 17 years, married 41 or 42- year- old Septimius Severus. Septimius later became the emperor of Rome and Julia became an empress. Although no philosophical writing has been attributed to her, she surrounded herself with sophist philosophers. She became famous for her "circle" of philosophers, studying with them, discussing with them, and, using her imperial powers, she protected philosophy and helped it to flourish. Julia Domna became known as "the philosopher Julia".

Makrina In the 4th century AD a girl by the name of Makrina, living in a Roman province, survived, along with her family, persecution by the Christians by hiding themselves in the wilderness for 7 years. Makrina’s paternal grandmother, Makrina the Older, had been famous as a pupil of Christian religion and Greek philosophy. Makrina lived an ascetic life on the family estate with her mother, former slave women, and other aristocratic lady-companions. She had a sharp mind for philosophical thinking, was well educated in Greek philosophy, and she occupied herself with philosophy most of her life. Her brother Gregory, who admired her greatly, wrote of a philosophical discussion he had with her at her death bed on the topic of the soul and the resurrection.

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Middle Ages ~
Radegund Radegund, of the 6th century AD, established one of the first Frankish convents, thereby laying the foundations for women’s spiritual and intellectual development. From these beginnings, women’s monasteries increased rapidly in number and influence, both on the continent, and in Anglo-Saxon England.

Saint Hilda Saint Hilda, of the 7th century AD, was well known as the powerful Abyss of the double monastery of Whitby. Whitby became one of the foremost religious centers in England, and it was there she educated five English bishops.

Heloise Many have heard of the 12th century, tragic love story of Peter the Venerable and Heloise. What is usually lost in the telling is that Heloise was a renowned scholar throughout France. By age 16, her reputation as a scholar led the greatest living philosopher in France, Peter Abelard, to agree to become her private tutor. When Peter met Heloise she already spoke Latin, Hebrew, and Greek and she was well educated in ancient philosophy and rhetoric. Tragically, the much older Peter seduced, and sometimes forced himself upon Heloise, and soon she was pregnant by him. Heloise did not want to marry Peter because she feared the marriage would ruin his clerical career. Therefore, after marrying Peter against her will, both Heloise and Peter publicly denied the marriage. Heloise’s uncle, who was her guardian, did not understand Peter’s reasons for denying his marriage to Heloise. Believing Peter to be a cad, her uncle became angry about the humiliation to Heloise, and in an attempt to force her to publicly acknowledge her marriage, he abused her. In response to the abuse, Peter sent Heloise to a monastery and ordered her to take the vows and enter religious life. Angered further at the apparent abandonment of Heloise and her child, Heloise's uncle paid thugs to pull Peter from his bed and castrate him. Peter then continued his complex philosophical and religious career, while Heloise lived the rest of her life as an Abbess; there merely because her husband had chosen his career over her. There are many letters, spanning the years, written between Heloise and Peter. They contain numerous philosophical discussions and arguments between the two. As the most brilliant philosopher of his day, Peter could not live by the principles he had taught to Heloise. Heloise seemed to care deeply for Peter, but as his student, Heloise lived by those principles and must have been disillusioned that he did not. She was much less concerned about the church than the betrayal of the philosophical ideals they both admired. Throughout their years of correspondence, Peter could not make Heloise forgive God for the lonely life she led and for the injustice of his castration after their marriage, which further lessened his interest in his marriage. Her husband did not choose a life with her and she dedicated her life to god without at any time experiencing a spiritual calling. Historians have long overlooked Heloise’s abilities and contributions,and she is frequently seen as important only in relation to Peter. But Heloise was already famous throughout France when she met Peter, and in her religious career she was highly respected and sought after by bishops, abbots, and lay people.

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Renaissance ~
Birgitta of Sweden Birgitta of Sweden lived during the 14th century. Birgitta, a mystic who did not withdraw herself from social and political activities, addressed some of the most significant philosophical, theological, and political issues of her day. Furthermore, she used her personal fortune to benefit the indigent, and she personally founded hospitals and a double monastery.

Julian of Norwich Julian of Norwich was born in late 1342, and may have died around 1412. Known as "the first English woman of Letters," she is considered by some as, "more metaphysical than other English mystics." Julian’s real name is not known. At some point in her life she became an anchoress -- a vowed solitary who lived a life devoted to prayer and meditation-- confined to a cell adjoining the church of St. Julian in Norwich; from this came her pseudonym. Virtually nothing is known about her aside from what she writes -- and she reveals little about herself, preferring instead to talk only about God. In May 1373, at the age of 30, Julian became deathly ill, and while on her supposed deathbed she received sixteen visions in which God's love was revealed to her. Following her recovery from her illness, she wrote two books about her experience: a short text presumably written not long after the experience, and a longer text, written twenty years later, which reveals the maturing of her deeply reflective mind. Julian is best known for her optimism ("All shall be well, and all shall be well, and all manner of things shall be well"), and for her repeated insistence of naming both God and Christ as "mother."

Catherine of Siena Catherine of Siena was considered the greatest Italian mystic of her time and her heavy involvement in Church and Renaissance politics, even at great personal risk, was based on her philosophical and theological convictions. Catherine was regarded as a notable philosopher in the tradition of Christian mystics and she had a large following among religious laics, royalty, and popes.

Christine de Pisan In the late 14th and early 15th centuries Christine de Pisan was one of France’s first professional writers and is popularly known as the first person ever to be self- supporting through writing alone. Much of her work was rich in philosophical argument and thought, representative of the social and political arguments of the end of the feudal period. Christine was still alive when Joan of Arc recaptured Orleans. Her poem, 'Song in Honor of Joan of Arc', was her last poem and the only one to celebrate Joan during Joan’s lifetime. Christine celebrated Joan’s victory because it vindicated two of Christine’s most treasured hopes, the honor of France and the worth of women.

Saint Teresa of Avila In 16th century Spain, Saint Teresa of Avila reformed the Carmelites, an especially austere and ascetic order of nuns, and created a new branch of the old order. In 1567 she was authorized to establish similar religious houses for men. During her life she struggled with inquisitors and censors. In spite of the fact that she was harassed every step of the way, Teresa established 16 foundations for women and 14 for men. Her life spanned the Renaissance, Reformation, and Counter-Reformation. Her experience of these movements had an enormous impact on her life and work as a mystic, a writer, and a religious reformer. Teresa died of uterine cancer in 1582, and in 1970 she was the first woman to be declared a Doctor of the Church.

Louisa Oliva Sabuco de Nantes Louisa Oliva Sabuco de Nantes was a major 16th century Spanish writer. She based her philosophy of human nature on medieval cosmologies which hold that humans are a microcosm of the universe; on the doctrines of various ancient philosophers; and on the most recent advances of her time in medical science and anatomical studies.

Marie le Jars de Gournay In France, Marie le Jars de Gournay wrote moral philosophy essays and feminist discourse. She has been identified as one of the earliest modern feminist philosophers.

Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon In the 17th century, French mystic Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte was known as Madame Guyon. Left a wealthy widow at the age of 28, she began spreading her philosophy of mysticism in southeastern France. Madame Guyon introduced into France the doctrine of Quietism, a form of mysticism that stresses withdrawal from worldly concerns, suppression of will, and passive meditation on the divine. Her ideas angered the archbishop of Paris and she was imprisoned in 1688, to be released the next year through the influence of the king’s wife. She was imprisoned for her writings again in 1695 and remained there until 1703, when she was released under the condition that she leave Paris. Despite her suffering, Madame Guyon died professing absolute belief in the Roman Catholic Church.

Antoinette Bourignion The 17th century Flemish Christian mystic Antoinette Bourignion left home at the age of 20 to avoid a marriage arranged by her father. Antoinette became a radical advocate of Quietism, but she was an active critic of all forms of religious organizations, and she traveled through England, France, Belgium and the Netherlands, carrying her printing press and teaching her quietist philosophies.