Although the work of Silvan S. Tomkins has been around since the early 60's, it is just becoming known and integrated into psychiatry.
Tomkins studied the innate affects and their role in psychology and human behavior. Psychiatry has been slow to accept his work because it appears to go against some of drive theory. It is actually the affects, rather than the drives, that appear to motivate human behavior. A knowledge of this theory has improved our ability to understand and treat patients far more effectively. Even the use of psychiatric medicines is made more rational and predictable as shown in the article from the journal Psychiatric Annals, Affect Theory and Psychopharmacology.
Affects serve as 'analogic amplifiers' of whatever they are co-assembled with. The hunger drive only assumes importance when it is assembled with interest in food. Likewise, the sex drive is fairly weak unless assembled with interest in sex. Interest in one's work or hobbies is just that, rather than a "sublimated libido"
Interest/Excitement Enjoyment/Joy -----------------------------
Surprise/Startle -----------------------------
Fear/Terror Anger/Rage Distress/Anguish Shame/Humiliation Disgust Dis-smell These nine affects may be added to any drive to give it intensity or power, but none of them have any intrinsic relationship to any drive.
Affect - the innate physiological response pattern to a given set of external and internal stimuli
Feeling - the conscious awareness of an affect
Emotion - the affect plus the results of the memories of all one's previous experiences with that affect
Mood - emotion sustained over time
Mood Disorder - a problem with the system
The ultimate reference work is the four volume set by Tomkins:
Affect, Imagery, Consciousness
Tomkins, Silvan S.
Springer
This is very dense work,
and quite difficult to read.
Other references:
Shame and Pride Affect, Sex, and the Birth of the Self
Nathanson, Donald L.
Norton
The Many Faces of Shame
Edited by Donald L. Nathanson
Guilford
Exploring Affect The Selected Writings of Silvan S. Tomkins
Edited by E. Virginia Demos
Cambridge University Press
Shame and its Sisters A Silvan Tomkins Reader
Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick and Adam
Frank Duke
Knowing Feeling Affect, Script, and Psychotherapy
Edited by Donald L. Nathanson
Norton
A nice new overview produced
by assembling many of our papers
Dog
Watching
Desmond Morris
Don't
Shoot the Dog
Karen Pryor
An excellent review of operant conditioning and its practical
applications, written without the jargon.
Man
Meets Dog
Konrad Lorenz
When
Elephants Weep
The Emotional Lives of Animals
Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson and
Susan McCarthy
Dogs
Never Lie About Love
Reflections on the Emotional
World of Dogs
Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson
Understanding
Your Dog
The essential guide to dog
psychology and behavior, revised for the 90s
Dr. Michael W. Fox
The
Intelligence of Dogs
Stanley Coren
When the normal affect Shame/Humiliation is experienced, one's goal should be acceptance of the message and a changing of behavior to minimize this affect being triggered under these circumstances in the future. There is such a thing as "healthy shame", despite the impression Bradshaw and some of the other Self Help authors may give.
When people do not just accept the affective experience of Shame/Humiliation, they tend to automatically respond in one or more of the four ways:
Withdrawal -
very intrinsic to the basic affect of Shame/Humiliation.
Attack Self
Attack Other
Avoidance
It is vitally important not to equate the affect Shame/Humiliation just with the emotion we know as embarrassment. Embarrassment is just one emotion that uses the affect Shame. Shame has many more and varied expressions and presentations, as will become apparent when considering the poles of the Compass of Shame.
Tomkins noted
that shame is triggered any time there is an impediment
to one of the two positive affects. If I am interested in getting
you to notice me and you do not, shame will be triggered, even
if there is no specific embarrassment. This 'shame as impediment'
is an important to keep in mind.
Expression of Emotion in Animals
Silvan Tomkins clearly described the human facial and other body responses that accompanied each affect. As I have said elsewhere, the dog's facial musculature is quite different from that of the human, especially around the mouth. We all know that our dogs are expressive, we can feel it. One of my current projects is an elaboration and a clarification of the nature of affective expression in animals.
While dogs don't have the facial display board features of the human, they have some structures apparently used in their expression of affect that humans don't. The tail, and very movable ears are the first two that come to mind.
Dr. Michael W. Fox in his book "Understanding Your Dog" has a chapter called A Dog's Body Language (and Daniel's Dilemma in the Dog's Den). I will start with it and then I'll go to some of the other existing literature.
Outline of Material from Dr. Michael W. Fox
In communication, the less social canines - the foxes - produce much stronger odors than do wolves or dogs. It seems that odors are extremely important for communication in canines that do not live in social groups and rarely meet up with each other outside the breeding season.
Second, there is a vocal repertoire of whines, howls, growls and barks that are directly tied in with body language. These vocalizations do not, with few exceptions, carry any special message akin to words. They generally indicate and individual's emotional state - be he aggressive, submissive, needing attention or in a painful distress.
It seems that besides giving some information about a dog's internal state, his body language also has a more general function. It regulates social distance or proximity between individuals. These are broken down into those that serve to increase and maintain social distance (such as a direct stare and a snarl), and those that serve to decrease social distance and maintain close proximity (such as low position, tail wagging and the submissive grin.)
Fox considers a third category that he says is not of primary communication value, which he calls general arousal or alerting reaction and those body postures and facial expressions seen during fear, excitement, investigation and exploration and also during certain consumatory activities, such as sleeping, scratching, drinking, eating, urinating, defecating, copulating and howling or singing. Though not meant as direct signals to others, these reactions may be perceived by one dog in another, and he may proceed to respond allelomimetically by copying the same thing at the same time (see Empathy). This is why dogs often tend to do the same thing at the same time. Another response to the reactions of another dog is to run over and investigate what he's doing. Fox points out that these group-coordinated activities are a characteristic feature of canines that live in packs - wolves and foxhounds, for example.
Your dog wants to make up to you after he has been disciplined and he behaves very much like a wolf that has been put down by the pack leader. Your dog probably feels the same way, too. He tends to avoid eye contact and often looks away in an exaggerated fashion. This has been misinterpreted by Dr. Konrad Lorenz in his book Man Meets Dog, as an intentional exposure of the throat as a sign of submission. All it really is an exaggerated avoidance of eye contact which does, however, imply submission. (Here we clearly recognize the affect Tomkins called Shame/Humiliation) The lips are usually pulled back horizontally in a submissive grin, and the ears are flattened down against the head. If touched, the dog remains completely still, and this is passive submission par excellence. The tail is tucked tightly between the hind legs and may be wagged in this low position.
Your dog will also lower his body to the ground and he may crawl forward on his belly, wagging his tail and flicking his tongue out as a licking-intention signal. If severely reprimanded, he may look away and at the same time raise one forepaw. This is not a hand-shaking habit learned from human beings but is really a signal of the intention to roll over onto one side. And dogs do roll over as a sign of complete submission, invariable raising the uppermost hind leg and exposing the genital just as a puppy does to its mother. Just like a puppy, the dog may then urinate. Don't punish him is he does, because it is a canine signal of absolute deference. All these signals come under the general category of "passive submission," and they may oscillate with another set of signals that have been arbitrarily grouped as "active submission" or overt friendly greeting.
For example, when your dog sees you coming home he barks excitedly, wags his tail in the high position and comes bounding up to you. As you both make contact or when he reaches a certain proximity to you, his active submissive behavior gives way to or at least includes some elements of passive submission described earlier.
The body language of active submission or greeting includes a special facial expression which is best described as a greeting grin, much like the human smile. It resemble the submissive appeasing grin in the lips are retracted horizontally, but in addition the mouth is opened slightly and the angles of the lips may be pulled upward. The tongue is extruded more frequently than in passive submission and the muzzle may be jerked upward in much the same way a puppy will jerk its head as it roots and seizes the teat. A facial expression similar to the greeting grin is seen as a prelude to play and occurs when the dog is soliciting play from its owner or another dog. We can call this the play face, and it differs from the greeting grin by virtue of its intensity and by the fact that the ears are held forward and erect and panting (possible an antecedent of laughter in man and chimpanzees) is often seen. Here I believe that there is some Interest/Excitement alternating with the Enjoyment/Joy.
The body language used to increase or maintain social distance ranges through varying degrees of threat to actual attack, and attack may range from an inhibited bite or snap at the air to a full-blown bite with violent headshake. A typical threat display includes a direct stare and a snarl: The lips are pulled horizontally forward and vertically to expose the canine teeth, and the mouth may be opened slightly. A low growl is emitted. The ears are erect and directed forward or twisted outward and downward; in actual attack they are plastered against the side of the head, possibly to protect them.
The threat display also includes a general "enlargement" of the body in contrast to the apparent reduction of size by lowering the body in submission. Body size is enhance by piloerection - the shoulder and rump hackles are raised, the neck is arched and the head held high, in contrast to the lowered head of submission.
These usually occur when the dog is in some form of conflict situation where, for example, he is at once afraid and aggressive, submissive or friendly and aggressive, or afraid and yet inquisitive at the same time.
A good example of the simultaneous occurrence of signal is found in the fear-biter. Such a dog shows combined elements of fear or submission and aggression. The hackles may be up, or up partially, and the tail is usually tucked tightly between the legs. The ears are usually back in the flattened submissive position, but there is (though not always) an obviously aggressive facial expression. One reason whey people get bitten is that the fear-biter can wear a submissive facial expression - ears back and lips pulled back horizontally into a submissive grin. His tail and hackles, though, may indicate that he might attack, and these other cues may not be read by the person who is concentrating entirely on the facial expression.
The important thing here is to read the whole dog, not just his face. The fear-biter's face often displays both submission and aggression, because the submissive grin is simultaneously combined with vertical retraction of the lips so that the canines are exposed in a snarl.
Tail angle and wag frequency
When the dog is excited, he wags his tail in an upright position but the tail is carried at a very different angle and wagged at a different frequency than when he is aggressive or friendly. When working, the Border Collie commonly carries the tail low in a position people mistake for that of shame and describe as skulking. The Interest/Excitement displayed on the face tell is this not a shame tail.
The lips are usually pulled back horizontally a little from the resting position, the ears are lowered and the eyelids are half closed. When you see this glazed expression, you will know that your dog is indeed content. This is the face of pure Enjoyment/Joy.
"The dulling of the instincts and the fixed paths along which much of animal behavior runs, was the prerequisite for rise of a certain, specifically human freedom of action. In the domestic animal also, the decline of various innate behavior reactions implies a new degree of freedom and not a lessening of the capacity to act rationally. In 1898 C. O. Whitman, the first man to understand and make a study of these things, said, "These defects in the instinct are not in themselves intelligence but they are the open door through which the great teacher, Experience, and enter and bring about all the wonders of the intellect."
Expressive movements and the social reactions which they elicit belong to the instinctive, inherited behavior patterns of a species. (This is what we mean when we say that the affects are "hard-wired" from birth.) In their innate expressive movements, are included the miming of their facial muscles and in the carriage of body and tail…
Man has largely lost touch with these reactions, for he possesses in the language of words a coarser but more easily intelligible form of communication. Endowed with the power of speech he is not obliged to "read in the eyes" of his fellows every slight change of mood. To most people, wild animals also appear limited in expression, although just the contrary is the case. The chow is inscrutable to people accustomed to jackal dogs, just as the face of many eastern Asiatics is impenetrable to most Europeans. But a trained eye can detect in the unrevealing countenance of a wolf or chow just as much as in the demonstrative facial expression of a jackal dog. The latter are, however, on a higher mental plane: they are largely independent of the innate and have mostly been learned or freely invented by the individual animal. (I have some degree of disagreement with this statement.) No fixed instinct impels a dog to express his affection by laying his head on his master's knee, and it is for this reason that such an action is more nearly related to our human language than anything that wild animals "say" to each other.
The innate ability of an animal to understand expressive movements and sounds only extends to those of nearly related species, and inexperienced dogs even fail to understand the miming of felines. Considering this fact, the degree to which dogs understand human expression of feeling is little short of miracle. (Actually this statement is why a section on "Empathy" will be considered.)
p.143 Oddly, dog trainers disagree on whether dogs feel anger, although they generally agree that dogs recognize anger in humans. Mike Del Ross, an experienced dog trainer at Guide Dogs for the Blind, although confident that dogs feel fear, sadness, happiness, frustration, and other emotions, doubted that they feel anger or jealousy, even when behaving aggressively. Another Guide Dog expert, Kathy Finger, disagreed strongly, saying that dogs do indeed feel anger.
The difficulty of untangling anger and aggression is compounded with predatory animal, whose way of getting food is more direct than anything most experience.
One source of aggression in social animals seems to be jealousy, a feeling that is often expressed as anger in humans. The evolutionary approach readily attributes a value to jealousy. Between siblings it can ensure the individual's access to food and parental care
Darwin argued that only humans blush. In the years since, the self-aware social emotions like shame, shyness, guilt, embarrassment, and self-consciousness - all feeling revolving around how the self is perceived by other - have usually been considered exclusively human. Yet there is evidence that many animals feel them, too, and shame may prove to be a surprisingly basic emotion. Masson is only surprised here because he has made the very common mistake of considering only the aspects of shame that relate to the "self-conscious" component. He has completely the 'shame as impedement' component of this affect.
Shame is one of the most vividly remembered feelings. Recalling happiness or fear or anger, people do not usually experience the emotion again at the time of recalling it. But remembering an incident of embarrassment or shame can often bring a flood of shame sweeping back. Those who blush may blush again at a memory. In human psychology and psychotherapy, shame received little attention for years but has recently begun to be considered important. It has been called "the master emotion," which societies use to enforce norms. Guilt refers to a particular event, but shame, which is more global is said to refer to the individual's entire being. Thus a person might feel guilt about going off their diet, and shame at being fat. (Unfortunately here, the old belief that requires that others know or observe or are imagined to judge throws off some of his thinking here, though he does then proceed to get around it.)
"But while it may seem logical to conclude that such emotions cannot exist without and intellectual comprehension of how one is viewed by other creatures, this need not be the case. There is no reason to suppose that an animal couldn't feel shame without understanding why. As Darwin noted, mental confusion is a prominent symptom of shame. "I can't think clearly in the moment of embarrassment, and I don't know anybody else who can," psychiatrist Donald Nathanson has written. Emotion (actually affect) can exist with or without understanding the reasons for it. One animal might be ashamed or embarrassed without being entirely conscious of the reason; another might be ashamed or embarrassed and understand the reason perfectly.
Self-consciousness denotes both emotional and intellectual states. Emotionally, it can be an uncomfortable feeling of being observed (or observing oneself) - a form of embarrassment. Intellectually, it is the reflective knowledge of one's own mind, existence, and acts - a philosophical minefield.
Mirror studies with primates have been a focus of the debate over whether animals have or can have self-awareness. Primates seem to show the ability to recognize when the image is the self, but dogs do not.
In a diverse range of species, evidence that animals know when they are being observed suggests self-awareness. When a male baboon yawns, his impressive canine teeth are ostentatiously displayed. Observing wild baboons, biologist Craig Packer found that males with worn or broken teeth yawn less than males with teeth in good condition - unless there are no other males around, in which case they yawn just as often.
One of the experiences of shame may be the unpleasant feeling that one appears badly - weak, stupid, dirty, helpless, or inadequate - and the dread of appearing this way. At first sight, shame need have no connection with fear. At one oceanarium (where the animals were never punished) a bottle-nosed porpoise, Wela, was trained to jump out of the water and take a fish from a person's hand. One day when this stunt was being photographed, trainer Karen Pryor was distracted and forgot to drop the fish as she usually did. As a result, when Wela grabbed the fish, she inadvertently bit Pryor's hand. Wela, appearing "hideously embarrassed," went to the bottom of the tank, put her snout in a corner, and would not come out until Pryor got in with her, petted her, and coaxed her into calmness.
Wela's behavior is comparable to that of a dog who barks and threatens someone coming into the house - and suddenly realizes that the someone is its owner. From a barking, bristling, menacing creature, the dog suddenly deflates to a wriggling, whining, tail-wagging pup. It has been argued that the comic reversal of behavior in such a dog does not mean he or she is embarrassed, only seeking to appease a dominant animal - its owner - by showing submission……. One might say that such behavior is merely ritual submission, but then the same description could apply to an embarrassed human apology. I prefer to see this as a situation where the recognition of the owner produced an understandable impediment to the desire to attack.
Dog trainers at Guide Dogs for the Blind say that old dogs who have lost bladder or sphincter control seem to be embarrassed or ashamed. One otherwise healthy sixteen-year-old dog in this condition refused to go indoors as had always done.
The blush is a primary evidence of shame in people. Charles Darwin, who investigated blushing at great length, seems to have been surrounded by people who blushed at the least provocation. He noted that it was usually accompanied by other signs of shame such as averting the eyes, the face, or the whole body. Nathanson has speculated that it may have secondarily evolved to function as a signal for the individual to "ask" to be re-included in the social group.
If shame proves to be widespread in the animal kingdom, the evolutionary approach would predict that is should confer some advantage. Just what might be adaptive about global self-accusation is not immediately apparent to Mosson.
If one thinks of the phenomenon where a deer
may become fixed upon staring at light, the evolutionary importance
of something that could break that attention when necessary becomes
apparent. Again, it is much easier to see the survival advantages
of shame when one remembers that it is a response to impediment
and in itself is able to inhibit Interest/Excitement. When
folks persist in equating shame with embarrassment, they are unable
to see a rich component of the feelings of humans and animals
alike.
Stay tuned. Importanat material to come...
From Message Board 10/26/97
Hi All! Jim, what are your opinions on the thought processes of dogs? Maybe you believe that the intelligence ratings of dogs has something to do with their thought processes? I don't know, I am just shooting this out at you.
For Instance, the Old English Mastiff is judged (now I do not hold this as true because I do not agree with the scientists techniques of judging intelligence) to be a pretty unintelligent dog as far as testing goes, but having owned one for 3 1/2 years or so I can say that I see a lot of thought processes in action, one of them being knowledge of wrong-doing.
This will seem strange for you non dog owners so bear with me or skip this post entirely.
Case At Hand: 200 lb Mastiff, 40 lb boy, Dog collides with boy by accident, 4 - 5 stitches follow at the Dr's office (boy not dog) Dog will not look at us for next two days, will not eat, will not come into house or garage, hangs out in the middle of field all day away from us or our gestures of affection.
Now I would tender a guess (and I am NOT a scientist or expert) that this dog is experiencing a guilt reaction!!! Although according to testing he is not intelligent or capable of remembering many things from his past.
Now: Boy is better, playing outside, loves dog, hugs dog, plays with dog. Dog comes back inside, resumes normal behaviors and interaction with family.
Would you say that the dog might have been worried something happened to my son? Is this capable to have thought processes like this? Not until he saw, felt and interacted with him did he come back into our family so to speak?
The dog and my son have had an intense relationship since we got him, my son was only barely a year old when the dog came into our family and they have been fast friends ever since. The dog follows my son everywhere and is intensely protective of him. I am wondering about the behavior and thought since you have an interest in dogs you would comment!
Thanks!
Kate
--------------------------------------
What a great question and wonderful
example of the emotions of dogs.
When folks speak of "intelligence" in people or dogs, what they are really referring to is the ability form concepts or patterns, remember them, and then manipulate in ways to solve novel problems.
The part of the brain called the cortex is where much of this associative activity takes place. Humans, whales, elephants, and porpoises have the largest cerebral cortices in the animal kingdom.
When we speak of feelings or emotions, which are based on the building blocks called affects, we are talking about processes that occur predominantly "sub-cortically" What this means is that ability to have a complete and intact system of emotions isn't dependent on size and complexity of the cerebral cortex or so called intelligence.
The affect system of all the higher mammals is pretty much indistinguishable from humans.
Another important concept is what is called "empathy". This is the ability of one to feel what the other is feeling. This occurs through a process that we have called affective resonance. All animals that live and hunt or feed in packs or herds, have fairly well developed empathic abilities. While horses have very good memories, they cannot be considered terribly high in the usual measures of intelligence. Yet, because horses normally exist in cohesive groups of from about seven to 21 members, they have a well developed emotional and empathic system. Dogs, even the ones that test as being of lower intelligence than other breeds, have an affect or feeling system that is probably not much different from human beings.
In humans, the primary display board of the affects or feelings is the face. Because dogs don't have the same voluntary and involuntary facial musculature as humans, their affects appear somewhat differently than humans. While the corners of people's mouths draw back and up in the smile of Enjoyment/Joy (contentment), a dog doesn't have the corresponding facial muscles. When a dog is experiencing Enjoyment/Joy, the mouth opens slightly with the jaw relaxed.
We've all heard of the expression "poker faced". This is applies to the folks who have learned a great degree of control of the voluntary muscles of facial expression. The muscles in the upper half of the face are under far less voluntary control than those of the lower half. This is why the eyes and the area immediately around them convey so much expression, even in those that have learned to control or minimize the display of emotion on the lower half of the face. This is probably part of the reason that eyes have been called the "windows of the soul" as they will tend to display the true feelings.
Have you ever noticed how many dogs have a slightly different colored patch of fur in the are that corresponds to where our eyebrows would be. Even dogs who don't have this actual color difference in that area seem to have a bit of hair length difference.
Now, finally, on to your example. It is extremely likely that when your little boy was bumped hard enough to break the skin, he quite freely expressed the affect we call Distress/Anguish. The dog would surely notice this, and even feel bad just in an empathic way. When people are physically or emotionally hurt, it is very common for dogs to come and try to comfort them. With your boy probably whisked off to the doctors office or emergency room, the poor dog probably never even got a chance to do this. So far, we see at least that the dog feels bad, because the boy feels bad. It wouldn't take a whole lot of intelligence to even connect that the boys feeling bad was a result of the collision with the dog, and I believe that even an Old English Mastiff could (and probably did) make this connection. Even so, what was observed could occur in the absence of the dog having realized causality.
Guilt is slightly higher level of emotion. It is made up of shame plus the fear of reprisal. Even if the dog had no fear of reprisal, his reaction was consistent with a severe shame reaction. In guilt we feel the need to confess, while in shame we feel the need to hide or withdraw. This is what people are speaking of when they say "I wish a hole in the earth would have opened up and swallowed me at that moment". Next, though dogs aren't able to express as much with their mouths, they have the same ability to express by total body tone and posture. In shame, the body slumps. Additionally, dogs have tails that are important in the expression of emotions. The expression of "tail tucked between his legs" pretty well exemplifies the tail posture of shame in dogs.
Shame is a very complex phenomena, involving so much more than the emotions that relate to embarrassment, but that type is probably a large component here.
While I quibbled just a bit on the technical distinction between guilt and shame, I would agree with your observations.
I have no evidence that dogs are capable of forming the concept of "worrying that something happened to" the child, though the dog certainly did "lose" the child when he was rushed off for treatment. That dogs experience loss and also grieve has been observed by many. Even still, this concept would not be necessary to explain the guilt/shame reaction exhibited by your dog. Because dogs are covered with fur, we don't know if they also blush like humans. Some have said that the blush was evolved as a signal, asking to be reincluded in the pack.
The cure for shame is acceptance. When the dog was finally able to allow your family to accept him back into the pack, his strong reaction passed and he was back to his normal sweet self.
From Dolores Van Dongen 11/11/97
Many years
ago, my old yellow lab fell asleep on top of his outdoor doghouse
(A-frame with a 8" wide flat
top piece) while suntanning his belly, all four
legs up in the air. As he
fell deeper and deeper asleep, he relaxed more
and more and eventually he lost
his balance and fell off the roof. Prince
was *very* embarrassed followed
immediately by shame, or guilt maybe. His
very first reaction was to cast
furtive glances all around to ensure that no
one had witnessed his fall.
These glances were identical to what a person
would cast about if one tripped
and fell flat on one's face while walking
down the street. Once assured
that no one had witnessed this, (I had moved
where I could still see him from
the kitchen window but he couldn't see me)
he cased the perimeter of the
yard, much more vigilantly than normal,to make
up for having been sleeping on
the job.
From David W. McShane 11/15/97
The second
time Silvan Tomkins visited in my home, and I was just beginning
to dote on AIC I and II, I did
a little demonstration for him with my Cairn
Terrier "Larky".
Silvan was
sitting across the living room from me and I called to Lark who
stopped in the middle of the room
and to the side so each of us could see
her. She was happily wagging
her tail and looking at me. I made no sound
or other signal, but simply frowned
at her very emphatically. Immediately
the wagging stopped, the tail
drooped and her head hung down, though she
continued looking at me. I quickly
smiled at her and her head popped back
up and her tail began wagging
again. Silvan found this interesting, but not
surprising. Then I told him to
try it. The dog had seen him only once, and
a year or more before. He said
her name. She looked at him, wagging. He
gave an obvious frown and immediately
she stopped wagging and drooped her
tail and head. Silvan gave her
his beaming smile and she returned to head
errect and wagging tail.
Silvan was quite surprised that the dog would
respond to these affective cues
from a stranger.
But, why should
it not be so? Those limbic system programs got their start
so very long ago in our phylogenetic
history. One crucial aspect of animal
domestication must be rooted in
affect discernment and contagion.
Get your own Free Home Page