"LARSON'S NOTES"
Study Guide Expanded Notes
for
EXCELSIOR COLLEGE
Anatomy and Physiology
III. The Dynamics of Support and Motion (12%)
A. Supporting tissue
1. Anatomy
a. Gross anatomy
(1) Bone
(a) Types: long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid
(b) Markings (processes): elevations (for example: ridge or crest, tubercle, tuberosity, malleolus, trochanter, spine, head, condyles), depressions (for example: pit or fovea, groove or sulcus), openings (for example: foramen, canal or meatus, fissure)
(2) Cartilage: hyaline, white fibrous, elastic
b. Microscopic anatomy
(1) Bone (osseous tissue): osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, periosteum, Sharpey's fibers, osteon (Haversian) system, lacunae, canaliculi, Haversian canal, lamellae, Volkmann's canal, interstitial lamella�, endosteum, bone marrow (yellow and red), organic and inorganic constituents
(2) Cartilage: cells in intercellular matrix, chondrogenic layer (chondroblasts and chondrocytes), perichondrium
2. Development and growth
a. Intramembranous ossification bone development occurs first with an ossification center forming in a non-bone connective tissue, usually the reticular fibrous membrane layer of the dermis. Ossification starts when osteoblasts cluster in the area and then spreads from the ossification center outward to form the bone. Some of the cranial bones, mandible and clavical are examples. Bones that form by intramembranous ossification are also called dermal bones.
b. Intracartilaginous or endochondral ossification has first established a hyaline cartilage shape as a model for bone development. Thereafter osteoblasts migrate to the center of the model to start bone formation. This area is the primary ossification center and bone formation develops outward from the primary ossification center towards the outer surface and the ends of the cartilage model. This forms the diaphysis or shaft of a long bone. There are secondary ossification centers that form at the ends of the bone which leave only a thin layer of cartilage covering the articular surfaces of the bone. The epiphyseal plate between the bone formed by the primary and secondary ossification center is also formed of a thin layer of cartilage. It is at this epiphyseal plate that growth occures, and the plate remains until growth is complete, replaced by bone The long bones of the arms and legs are examples. Most bones of the body are formed by this method.
c. Hormonal influences: for example: growth hormone (GH) (somatotropin), thyroxine, adrenocorticotropic hormone, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, estrogen, testosterone
d. Other chemical influences: vitamins and minerals
B. Skeletal system
Sesamoid bone:
A bone that forms within a tendon, like the Patella, and they are usually of a round shape.
Sutural bone:
A bone found in the sutures of the cranial bones,. Note that these are not present in all individuals.
1. Divisions
a. Axial: skull (cranial and facial bones), hyoid, vertebral column, sternum, ribs
Skull (cranial and facial bones)
Cranial Bones
Occipital bone
Parietal bones
Frontal bone
Temporal bones
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid bone
Facial Bones
Nasal bones
Zygomatic bones
Maxillary bones
Palatine bones
Lacrimal bones
Inferior nasal conchae
Vomer
Mandible
identify the hyoid bone, occipital condyles, the foramen magnum (hole through which the spinal cord passes), the mandibular fossa and the temporomandibular joint (the joint formed by the temporal and mandibular bones
Sinuses:
The four bones of the cranium have hollow air spaces that empty into the nasal cavities called sinuses. Each sinuses is named for the bone in which it is located, thus, the frontal sinus, sphenoidal sinus, ethmoidal sinus, and maxillary sinus.
Vertebral column
The 5 regions of the vertebral column and the number of vertebrae in each region
intervertebral disks
C1, The Atlas
C2, The Axis
thoracic vertebrae articulate with the ribs
lumbar vertebrae
sacrum
composed of 5 fused sacral vertebrae and identify the auricular surface and what it articulates with.
coccyx
composed of 3-5 vertebrae that are fused together.
sternum
manubrium, body, xiphoid process
ribs
Ribs 1-7 (numbered from superior to inferior) are true ribs as they are connect to the sternum by separate costal cartilages
Ribs 8-12 are false ribs as they do not have separate cartilage connections but a combined connection to the sternum
Ribs 11 and 12 are also known as floating ribs as they have no connection to the sternum).
b. Appendicular (girdles and extremities)
(1) Upper limb: pectoral girdle (clavicles, scapulae), humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
Clavicle
Scapula
Acromion Spine Glenoid cavity Coracoid process Supraspinous and infraspinous fossae
Humerus
Head of the humerus Greater Tubercle (site of muscle attachment) Lesser tubercle (site of muscle attachment) Deltoid tuberosity (site of attachment of the deltoid muscle) Coronoid fossa Olecranon fossa Medial and lateral epicondyles
Radius
Head of the radius Styloid process of the radius (serves to stabilize the wrist joint)
Ulna
Olecranon Coronoid process Radial notch of the ulna Styloid process of the ulna (serves to stabilize the wrist joint)
Carpal bones
Metacarpal bones
Phalanges of the fingers
the pollex (thumb) has two phalanges with the rest of the digits have three phalanges.
(2) Lower limb: pelvic girdle (hip bones), femur, patella, fibula, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
Coxa
the pelvic girdle consists of two fused coxae
the three bones of the coxae are the ishium, ilium, and pubis
Iliac crest Acetabulum Acetabular fossa Pubic tubercle Pubic symphysis Obturator foramen Auricular surface for articulation with the sacrum
Femur
Head of the femur Greater trochanter Lesser trochanter Lateral and medial epicondyles Lateral and medial condyles Patellar surface
Patella
Tibia
Lateral and medial tibial condyles Lateral and medial malleoli
Fibula
Lateral and medial tibial condyles Lateral and medial malleoli
Tarsal bones
Metatarsal bones
Phalanges of the toes
the hallux (big toe) has two phalanges with the rest of the digits having three phalanges.
2. Articulations
a. Types and characteristics
(1) Synarthrosis (immovable): for example; sutures
suture joints can be found in the fused bones of the skull
infants are born with gaps between the cranial bones that later fuse forming sutures
(2) Amphiarthrosis (slightly moveable): for example: symphysis pubis, intervertebral disks
(3) Diarthrosis (fully movable): gliding, hinge joint (ginglymus), condyloid joint, saddle joint, pivot joint, ball-and-socket joint
b. Movements: flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, circumduction, rotation
Extension
Hyperextension
Flexion
Adduction
Abduction: Movement of skeletal elements away from the central axis of the limb or body.
Circumduction
Rotation
Plantar flexion: Movement of the ankle resulting in the foot and toes points downward.
Dorsiflection
Eversion
Inversion
Pronation
Supination
C. Muscle tissue
1. Types and characteristics
a. Skeletal (striated, voluntary)
Long cylindrical fibers, multiple nuclei, striated
Associated with skeletal muscles and eyes, mouth, anus
Voluntary Control
three types of skeletal muscle fibers
Slow contracting-slow fatigue muscle fibers
Fast contracting-fast fatigue muscle fibers
Intermediate muscle fibers
six types of skeletal muscle fiber arrangement patterns
Parallel
Convergent
Circular
Multipennate
Bipennate
Unipennate
b. Smooth (nonstriated, involuntary)
Fusiform cells with a single nucleus, no striations
Digestive tract, blood vessels, respiratory tract, ducts of some exocrine glands, urinary bladder.
Involuntary Control
c. Cardiac (striated, involuntary)
Branched cells with a single nucleus, striated
Heart
Involuntary Control
2. Gross anatomy
a. Attachment: origins, insertions (for example: by tendons and aponeuroses)
Major tendons
b. Levers: first class, second class, third class (fulcrum, effect, resistance)
c. Location and function of major muscles (textbooks identify these muscles)
Head and Neck Muscles
Temporalis
Masseter
Zygomaticus
Orbicularis oculi
Obicularis oris
Depressor anguli oris
Sternocleidomastoid
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
Inferior rectus
Lateral rectus
Superior rectus
Medial rectus
Inferior oblique
Superior Oblique
shoulder and upper extremity
Pectoralis major
Pectoralis minor
Serratus anterior
Latissimus dorsi
pectoral girdle
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Deltoid
Trapezius
Teres major
Terer minor
Subscapularis
upper arm
Coracobrachialis
Biceps branchi (short and long heads)
Brachialis
Triceps (lateral, long, and medial heads)
Muscles of the anterior forearm
Brachioradialis
Pronator teres
Flexor carpi radialis
Palmaris longus
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Muscles of the posterior forearm
Extensor digitorum
Extensor carpi radialis longus
Flexor carpi ulnaris
lower extremity
Gluteus maximus
Gluteus medius
Piriformis
Superior Gemellus
Internal obturator
Inferior Gemellus
Quadratus femoris
the thigh
Tensor fasciae latae
Sartorius
Gracilis
Adductor longus
Rectus femoris
Vastus lateralis
Vastus medialis
Semitendinosus
Biceps femoris
Semimembranosus
lower leg
Gastrocnemius (medial and lateral heads)
Soleus
Peroneus longus
Tibialis anterior
D. Muscle physiology
1. Contractions: muscle twitch, tetanus (complete vs. Incomplete), summation (temporal, spatial)
the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction
2. Mechanism of contraction
skeletal muscles are innervated by motor neurons that use the chemical neurotransmitter acetylcholine to initiate muscle contraction
Three types of muscle fibers in skeletal smucles
Slow contracting-slow fatigue muscle fibers are able to make slow sustained contractions and are therefor most useful for actions or movements that require sustained force over time, but do not require speed. The postural muscles of the back that keep you sitting or standing upright with your head up are an example of muscles that are composed mainly of these fibers .
Fast contracting-fast fatigue muscle fibers are able to make quick contractions, but cannot sustain that force for very long. They are most useful for actions that require quick movement, but do not require sustained force. The extrinsic eye muscles (superior rectus, etc.) are an example of muscles that are composed mainly of these fibers.
Intermediate muscle fibers have characteristics of both, the slow contracting-slow fatigue and the fast contracting-fast fatigue fibers. Most of the muscles of the body are intermediate, and these muscles can be developed or trained to behave more like one or the other two type.
a. Electrical and mechanical aspects: for example: stimuli (subthreshold, threshold), action potential, latent period, period of contraction, relaxation, all-or-non principle, graded strength principle, absolute and relative refractory period, tonus, motor unit, excitation-contraction coupling, calcium effect, summation (temporal, spatial)
stimuli (subthreshold, threshold)
action potential
latent period
period of contraction
relaxation
all-or-non principle
graded strength principle -
Load - strech reflex
Metabolic conditionss- fatique
Initial muscle fiber lenght
Recruitment of motor units - The nervous system can control the overall force of contraction for a skeletal muscle by varying the number and size of the motor units that are activated, large motor units develop more force, and the greater quanity of motor units active also the greater the force. It is through gradually increasing the size and quanity of motor units activated that the nervous system can produce a smooth gradual contraction. Motor unit recruitment is this gradual activation of motor units and it is this that produces smooth movement.
absolute and relative refractory period
tonus
motor unit - Skeletal muscle fibers are organized into motor units. A motor unit is composed of a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers innervated. Motor units vary in the number of muscle fibers they contain, with large motor units having may muscle fibers and small motor units having only a few.
excitation-contraction coupling
calcium effect
summation (temporal, spatial)
b. Chemical and thermal aspects: for example: sliding filament theory (actin, myosin, regulating proteins), energy sources (ATP-creatine phosphate-glycogen), heat formation, oxygen debt, fatigue
3. Exercise physiology: isometric and isotonic contractions, white and red fibers, strength vs. endurance