A. Basic anatomical terminology
1. Body cavities and regions
2. Anatomical position, planes, and directional terms
B. General organization of the body
1. Cell structure and function as revealed by electron microscopy (including cell membrane receptor sites)
2. Fundamental body tissues
a. Epithelial
b. Connective
c. Muscle
d. Nervous
3. Organs: definition and examples
4. Systems: definition and examples
C. Skin (Integument)
1. Epidermis
2. Dermis (receptors, glands, hair follicles, nails)
D. Maintenance of the internal environment
1. Homeostasis
2. Cellular fluid dynamics
a. Osmosis
b. Filtration
c. Diffusion
d. Active transport
e. Endocytosis and exocytosis
II. Chemical basis of Life (5%)
A. Atomic structure
1. Elements and isotopes
2. Atomic weights
B. Chemical bonds
1. Ionic bonds
2. Covalent bonds
3. Hydrogen bonds
C. Types of reactions
1. Decomposition
2. Synthesis
3. Reversible reactions
4. Enzymes and chemical reactions
D. Inorganic compounds
1. Water and its properties
2. Aqueous solutions
3. Colloids and suspension
4. Hydrogen ions in body fluids
5. Inorganic acids and bases
6. Salts
7. Buffers and pH control
E. Organic compounds
1. Carbohydrates
a. Monosaccharides
b. Disaccharides
c. Polysaccharides
2. Lipids
a. Fatty acids
b. Glycerol
c. Steroids
d. Phospholipids
3. Proteins
a. Structure of proteins
b. Protein shape
c. Enzyme function
4. Nucleic acids
a. Structure of nucleic acids
b. RNA and DNA
III. The Dynamics of Support and Motion (12%)
A. Supporting tissue
1. Anatomy
a. Gross anatomy
(1) Bone
(a) Types: long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid
(b) Markings (processes): elevations (for example: ridge or crest, tubercle, tuberosity, malleolus, trochanter, spine, head, condyles), depressions (for example: pit or fovea, groove or sulcus), openings (for example: foramen, canal or meatus, fissure)
(2) Cartilage: hyaline, white fibrous, elastic
b. Microscopic anatomy
(1) Bone (osseous tissue): osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, periosteum, Sharpey's fibers, osteon (Haversian) system, lacunae, canaliculi, Haversian canal, lamellae, Volkmann's canal, interstitial lamella�, endosteum, bone marrow (yellow and red), organic and inorganic constituents
(2) Cartilage: cells in intercellular matrix, chondrogenic layer (chondroblasts and chondrocytes), perichondrium
2. Development and growth
a. Intramembranous ossification
b. Intracartilaginous or endochondral ossification
c. Hormonal influences: for example: growth hormone (GH) (somatotropin), thyroxine, adrenocorticotropic hormone, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, estrogen, testosterone
d. Other chemical influences: vitamins and minerals
B. Skeletal system
1. Divisions
a. Axial: skull (cranial and facial bones), hyoid, vertebral column, sternum, ribs
b. Appendicular (girdles and extremities)
(1) Upper limb: pectoral girdle (clavicles, scapulae), humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
(2) Lower limb: pelvic girdle (hip bones), femur, patella, fibula, tibia, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
2. Articulations
a. Types and characteristics
(1) Synarthrosis (immovable): for example; sutures
(2) Amphiarthrosis (slightly moveable): for example: symphysis pubis, intervertebral disks
(3) Diarthrosis (fully movable): gliding, hinge joint (ginglymus), condyloid joint, saddle joint, pivot joint, ball-and-socket joint
b. Movements: flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, circumduction, rotation
C. Muscle tissue
1. Types and characteristics
a. Skeletal (striated, voluntary)
b. Smooth (nonstriated, involuntary)
c. Cardiac (striated, involuntary)
2. Gross anatomy
a. Attachment: origins, insertions (for example: by tendons and aponeuroses)
b. Levers: first class, second class, third class (fulcrum, effect, resistance)
c. Location and function of major muscles (textbooks identify these muscles)
D. Muscle physiology
1. Contractions: muscle twitch, tetanus (complete vs. Incomplete), summation (temporal, spatial)
2. Mechanism of contraction
a. Electrical and mechanical aspects: for example: stimuli (subthreshold, threshold), action potential, latent period, period of contraction, relaxation, all-or-non principle, graded strength principle, absolute and relative refractory period, tonus, motor unit, excitation-contraction coupling, calcium effect, summation (temporal, spatial)
b. Chemical and thermal aspects: for example: sliding filament theory (actin, myosin, regulating proteins), energy sources (ATP-creatine phosphate-glycogen), heat formation, oxygen debt, fatigue
3. Exercise physiology: isometric and isotonic contractions, white and red fibers, strength vs. endurance
IV. Integration and Regulatory Mechanisms (23%)
A. Nervous system
1. Cell types
a. Neuron: cell body, dendrites, axon, neurofibrils, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, telodendria
(1) Structural classification: unipolar, bipolar, multipolar
(2) Functional classification: afferent (sensory), efferent (motor), association (interneuron)
b. Supportive cells
(1) CNS: neuroglia or glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells)
(2) PNS: Schwann cells
2. Nerve impulse: membrane excitation (graded, voltage-regulated potential), ,membrane inhibition, facilitation, saltatory conduction
3. Synapse: excitation (EPSP), inhibition (IPSP), convergence, divergence, calcium modulation, neurotransmitters, MAO, specificity of receptors (adrenergic, cholinergic), fatigue
4. Reflexes (knee jerk, stretch, withdrawal)
5. Development and growth
a. Ectoderm: neural (medullary) [late, neural tube (brain and spinal cord)
b. Brain: forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
6. Divisions
a. Central nervous system
(1) Brain : gray and white matter
(a) Forebrain (prosencephalon): telencephalon (lateral ventricles, cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, rhinencephalon), diencephalon (third ventricle, epithalamus, thalamus, metathalamus, hypothalamus)
(b) Midbrain (mesencephalon): cerebral aqueduct, cerebral peduncles, corpora quadrigemina
(c) Hindbrain (rhombencephalon): forth ventricle, metencephalon (cerebellum, pons), myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)
(2) Spinal cord: gray and white matter
(a) Ascending tracts (sensory): for example: posterior columns, spinothalamic pathways, spinocerebellar pathways
(b) Descending tracts (motor): for example: pyramidal pathways (corticospinal tracts), extrapyramidal pathways (rubrospinal and reticulospinal)
(3) Meninges: dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater
(4) Cerebrospinal fluid (formation, flow, reabsorption, and function)
b. Peripheral nervous system
(1) Cranial nerves (12 pairs): name, number, type, function
(2) Spinal nerves
(a) Thirty-one pairs (8 cervical, 12 thoractic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygeal): dorsal root, ventral root
(b) Plexi: cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral
c. Autonomic nervous system (visceral efferent system)
(1) Sympathetic division (thoracolumbar)
(2) Parasympathetic division (craniosacral)
(3) Anatomical and functional aspects
(a) Preganglionic (white rami root) and postganglionic (gray rami root) fibers: for example: adrenergics, cholinergics
B. Sensations
1. General senses
a. Exteroceptors: free nerve endings, Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner's corpuscles, Ruffini end organ, Krause end organ
b. Chemoreceptors (carotid and aortic bodies)
c. Baroreceptors (carotid and aortic sinuses)
d. Stretch receptors of the lung (Hering-Breuer reflux)
e. Proprioceptors: muscle spindles, tendon organ, joints
2. Special senses
a. Visual
(1) Anatomy of eye: for example: layers of eyeball, extraocular muscles
(2) Physiology of vision and errors of refraction (CNII)
b. Auditory
(1) Anatomy of ear: for example: layers of eyeball, extraocular muscles
(2) Physiology of hearing (mechanics, organ of Corti) (CNVIII)
c. Olfactory: olfactory nerves, olfactory membrane, conchae (CNI)
d. Gustatory: tongue, taste buds (papillae of tongue), classes of taste (CNXI, XII)
e. Balance and equilibrium
(1) Anatomy of semicircular canals (utricle and saccule)
(2) Physiology of balance (static vs. Dynamic equilibrium) (CNVIII)
C. Endocrine system
1. Hormones
a. Amino acid derivatives
b. Peptide hormones
c. Proteins
d. Steroids
2. Mechanisms of hormonal action: first and second messengers
a. Plasma membrane: adenyl cyclase mechanism, c-AMP
b. Cytosol: nuclear membrane receptor mechanism
3. Endocrine glands: structure and function
a. Pituitary (hypophysis cerebri)
(1) Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa): ADH, oxytocin
(2) Adenohypophysis (pars distalis): ACTH, GH, TSH, FSH, LH (ICSH)
(3) Relationship to hypothalamus (hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system and tract)
b. Thyroid: thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), calcitonin
c. Parathyroid: parathormone (PTH)
d. Adrenal (suprarenal)
(1) Medulla: epinephrine, norepinephrine, relationship to the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
(2) Cortex: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex hormones
e. Pancreas: islets of Langerhans, insulin, glucagon
f. Gonads
(1) Ovaries: estrogen and progesterone
(2) Testes: androgens (testosterone)
g. Thymus (role in T4 and T8 synthesis)
h. Pineal gland: melatonin
i. Placenta: estrogens, progesterone, human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
4. Other secretory tissue
a. Gastrointestinal mucosa ( enteroendocrine cells): gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK)
b. Kidney: for example: renin, erythropoietin
5. Hypothalamus
a. Releasing factors and inhibiting factors
b. Posterior pituitary hormones (ADH, oxytocin)
V. Maintenance of the Human Body (33%)
A. Circulatory system
1. Blood
a. Characteristics: color, specific gravity, pH, temperature
b. Formed elements: characteristics, life cycle, number, function
(1) Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
(2) Leukocytes (white blood cells)
(3) Thrombocytes (platelets)
c. Nonformed elements (plasma): components and characteristics
(1) Water
(2) Proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen)
(3) Salts
(4) Gases
(5) Nutrients
(6) Enzymes and hormones
(7) Waste products
d. Blood typing (agglutinins, agglutinogens)
(1) ABO groups
(2) Rh factor
e. Hemostasis: vessel constriction, platelet plugging, coagulation (intrinsic and extrinsic)
2. The heart: a dual pressure pump
a. Structure
(1) Layers: pericardium, endocardium, myocardium, epicardium
(2) Chambers: atria, ventricles
(3) Valves: tricuspid, bicuspid (mitral), aortic and pulmonic semilunar
(4) Coronary circulation: coronary arteries, cardiac veins, coronary sinus
(5) Conduction system
(a) Intrinsic (S-A node, A-V node, Bundle of His, left and right bundle branches, Purkinje fibers)
(b) Extrinsic (vagal and cardiac nerve modulation)
b. Function
(1) Properties of cardiac muscle: automaticity, intercellular conductivity (gap junctions)
(2) Origin of heartbeat and conductive pathway
(3) Cardiac cycle: phases (systole, diastole), pressure and volume changes, heart sounds, ECG
(4) Control of cardiac output
(a) Nervous control: vagus and cardiac nerve
(b) Autoregulation
(c) Role of receptors: baroreceptors (Bainbridge reflex, aortic sinus reflex, carotid sinus reflex)
(d) Other factors affecting frequency and strength of heart action: for example: blood pressure, emotional excitement, blood temperature, physical factors (size, age, gender)
3. Vascular system
a. Divisions: systemic, pulmonary
b. Vessels: histology and function
(1) Arteries: layers, elastic arteries, muscular arteries, vasa vasorum
(2) Veins: layers, valves, vasa vasorum
(3) Capillaries: distribution
c. Location of major vessels (Textbooks identify these vessels.)
d. Special circuits
(1) Hepatic portal system
(2) Coronary
(3) Cerebral (circle of Willis)
(4) Renal
(5) Fetal
(6) Hypothalamic and hypophyseal portal system
4. Cardiovascular physiology
a. Pressure dynamics: blood distribution to body organs and organ needs
b. Regulation and maintenance of blood pressure
(1) Cardiac output (stroke volume times heart rate)
(2) Resistance to blood flow: vasodilation, vasoconstriction, blood viscosity
(3) Role of chemoreceptors and baroreceptors
(4) Effect of nervous stimulation
c. Capillaries exchange
(1) Fluid exchanges: a result of the balance between
(a) Hydrostatic pressure
(b) Osmotic (oncotic) pressure
(2) Diffusion (nutrients, gases)
5. Lymphatic system
a. Anatomical organization: lymph capillaries, right lymphatic duct, thoracic duct, lymph nodes
b. Lymph fluid: origin, composition, flow, function
c. Structure of lymph vessels and organs: spleen, thymus, tonsillar tissue, pharyngeal tissue (adenoid)
6. Immune responses
a. Nonspecific resistance to disease
b. Specific resistance to disease
(1) Antigens and antibodies
(2) Cellular and humoral immunity
(a) T lymphocytes (helper, cytotoxic, suppressor, memory)
(b) B lymphocytes (active and memory)
(c) Types of immunity: active and passive
B. Respiratory system
1. Anatomy
a. Respiratory tract (conducting and respiratory portions - changes in histology)
b. Respiratory muscles: diaphragm and intercostals
c. Pleura (visceral and parietal layers)
2. Physiology
a. Diffusion of gases: pressure (intraalveolar and intrapleural)
(1) Boyle's Law
(2) Charles' Law
(3) Dalton's Law
(4) Henry's Law
b. Mechanisms of ventilation
(1) Inspiration
(2) Expiration
(3) Lung volumes and capacities: for example: tidal volume, inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, residual volume, vital capacity
c. Gas exchange and transportation
(1) Oxygen, carbon dioxide
(2) Hemoglobin dissociation curve
d. Control ventilation
(1) Nervous control
(a) Medulla oblongata (inspiration, expiration)
(b) Pons varolii (apneustic area and pneumotaxic area)
(c) Lungs (Hering-Breuer reflux)
(2) Chemical control: pH, carbon dioxide (PCO2), hypoxia (PO2)
(3) Other controls: temperature change, pressure change, voluntary (cerebrum)
C. Digestive system
1. Anatomy and functions of the alimentary canal
a. Microscopic anatomy: serosa, muscular layers, submucosa, mucosa. lymph nodes (Peyer's patches)
b. Gross anatomy
(1) Alimentary tract: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, cardiac (esophageal) sphincter, stomach, pyloric sphincter, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), ileocecal valve, large intestine (caecum, vermiform appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal)
(2) Accessory organs: tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
2. Physiology of the digestive process
a. Physical (mechanical) digestion: ingestion, mastication, deglutition, peristalsis, segmentation, pendular movement, defecation
b. Chemical digestion: Catalytic enzymes and hydrolysis of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
c. Control of digestion
(1) Nervous control: autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic and sympathetic), myenteric and submucosal plexus
(2) Hormonal control: gastrin, enterogastrone (GIP), secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK)
d. Mechanisms of absorption: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis, physical factors (particle size, concentration of materials, lipid solubility, surface area)
D. Metabolism
1. Nutrient metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids
a. Anabolism (glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis, lipogenesis, protein synthesis)
b. Catabolism (glycogenolysis, glycolysis, lipolysis, protein degradation)
2. Energy metabolism (aerobic and anaerobic): role of enzymes and phosphorylation, TCA (Krebs) cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, electron transport chain, role of NAD and FAD ( Students are not responsible for the individual biochemical events of above process)
3. Daily calorie requirements, nutritional needs, body heat
4. Calorimetry: basal metabolic rate (BMR)
VI. Urinary System (10%)
A. Gross anatomy: kidney (capsule, pelvis, calyces, medulla, cortex, renal columns, renal pyramids), ureters, bladder, urethra, blood supply
B. Microscopic anatomy: nephron (glomerulus, podocytes, renal [Bowman's] capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule), collecting duct
C. Nephron dynamics (homeostatic maintenance)
1. Glomeruli (GFR, GFP)
a. Hydrostatic presser
b. Osmotic pressure
c. Fluid exchange
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
4. Countercurrent multiplier/exchanger
5. JGA (renin-angiotensinogen mechanism)
D. Control of renal function
1. Hormonal: antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin), aldosterone
2. Nervous: autonomic nerves
E. Micturition reflex and voluntary control
F. Urine composition
1. Physical characteristics: color, transparency, pH, specific gravity, quantity
2. Constituents
a. Inorganic: chlorides; sulphates; phosphates of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium; water; ammonium salts
b. Organic: creatinine, uric acid
VII. Fluid and Electrolyte Balance (5%)
A. Fluid compartments: distribution of water and electrolytes in the body, movement of water, water intake and output, adjustment of excess fluid intake, regulation by hormones, stress situations, reserve body water, milliequivalents, important cations and anions
1. Extracellular (interstitial fluid, plasma)
2. Intracellular
B. Acid-Base balance: normal pH range, pH regulation, sources of acid and base
1. Blood buffers
2. Respiratory regulation
3. Renal regulation
4. Acid-base disturbances (acidosis, alkalosis)
VIII. Reproduction and Development (7%)
A. Anatomy
1. Primary reproductive organs
a. Male: testes
b. Female: ovaries
2. Accessory reproductive organs
a. Male: epididymis, vas deferens (ductus deferens), seminal vesicles, ejaculatory ducts, prostate gland, bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands, urethra, penis
b. Female: fallopian tubes (oviducts), uterus, vagina, greater vestibular (Bartholin's) glands, external genitalia
B. Physiology of reproductive system
1. Gametogenesis: reduction division
a. Spermatogenesis
b. Oogenesis
2. Hormonal control
a. Female: oogenesis, menstrual cycle (FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone)
b. Male: spermatogenesis, gonadotropins (FSH, LH [ICSH]), testosterone
3. Nervous control
a. Erection (parasympathetic)
b. Ejaculation (sympathetic)
4. Fertilization and implantation
5. Pregnancy
a. Hormonal control: corpus luteum (estrogen, progesterone), placenta (HCG)
b. Development
(1) Egg stage
(2) Embryonic stage
(3) Fetal stage
6. Parturition: stages, hormonal control (oxytocin, relaxin)
7. Lactation: nervous and hormonal control, nutritional aspects
