It was the Christian church, fierce antagonists of drama, that re-introduced theatre in the Middle Ages (Goodman 1978, p.124). Drama came out of a desire by the church to educate people on the teachings of the bible and the doctrines of the church. "As early as 970 St Ethelwold of Winchester was speaking of 'the strengthening of faith in the unlearned vulgar' (Hibbert 1987, p.89). Plays then became a customary and excepted part of the Christian calendar year. It was not only a teaching tool, but an opportunity for public worship. "Theatrical performances were regularly produced. These had developed from the liturgical drama of the early Church" (Hibbert 1987, p.89). Slowly the presentation of drama was refined and enhanced, while the style of theatre also progressed.
The different styles of theatre, were performed habitually throughout the Middle Ages. The mystery play or Corpus Christy play was in expression the same as the miracle play. Literary authorities made the distinction between miracle and mystery plays, by designating the subject matter. The mystery plays were those with Gospel events, while the miracle plays were those that dealt with the legends of the saints. Miracle plays were formed when the simple scenes from the bible that had become part of public worship, could no longer be performed by priests in the 13th century. The church had declared priests could no longer participate in the plays. These miracle plays were presented on Easter and other holy days. They were not only a biblical drama but they also included scenes of realistic medieval comedy (Roy 1993).
These dramas evolved and were acted in cycles. These cycles, usually only taking a short while to perform, were done by the trade guilds. "Despite the religious content of the cycles, they seemed to be regarded in large part as entertainment" (Walsh 1993). One play performed from a cycle, was the first murder, 'The Murder of Abel'. It was performed by the glovers' guild and told the biblical story of Cain and Abel, the two sons of Adam and Eve. Although it differed from the original story by adding the servant boy Garcio, the addition was done for entertainment reasons. Even with the alteration of the story, the play still maintains its sermonic quality, although perhaps disguised under the play's theatrics.
"The final development of religious drama was the morality play" (Goodman p.122). They were popular in the 15th and early 16th centuries. They were designed to instruct audiences in the Christian way of life and the churches attitude to death (Roy 1993). They differed from the cycle plays by not drawing from biblical stories and characters. Instead they instructed with stories that were from outside the bible to impress Christian beliefs. The play 'Everyman' was one such play. It dealt with the individual's journey and conduct though life, and the choices open to him. It was an allegorical tale and certainly didactic with the moral to impress on every spectator the importance of good deeds, and yet it entertained.
Though congregations grew, the tone and content of the plays became more comical and bawdy, and the clergy were not cheering at the change. "St Ethelwold, acknowledged that the plays had been instituted 'in order to strengthen the belief of the faithful and to attract the unbeliever'. Regretted they had now been spoiled by 'buffoonery, unbecoming jokes . . . and all sorts of disorder'" (Hibbert 1987, p.90). In 'The Murder of Abel' there is evidence of such bawdiness. There are anal references certainly coarse enough to offend. In line 7 Garcio speaks, "He must blow my black hole", and another in line 59 spoken by Cain, "Come kiss mine arse, I don't want to rail" (Gassner 1987, p.57). These, along with other such references in the play, would have seen the church's disapproval and the approving acceptance of the amused spectator.
So religious drama gradually moved out of the churches. This meant that the theatre would no longer be performed inside, instead it would be performed outside, open to the weather's dictations. Churchyards, market places and carts which were paraded about the town, were now the new stage. "Although the church encouraged early liturgical drama because of its didactic qualities, entertainment and spectacle became increasingly prevalent, and the church once again voiced its misgivings about drama" (Walsh 1993). Even though the church no longer allowed the priests to perform as actors, or permit drama in the church buildings, the church still continued to proclaim ardent disapproval. These earlier decisions by the church however, had marked the end of church control over drama, although it was not the end of the plays embodying Christian dogma.
The visual aspect of the plays was the biggest drawing card to the productions. "Since then the primitive dramas enacted in churches at Easter, in which the Angel appeared before the Marys by the tomb of the Resurrection, had become increasingly elaborate and more sophisticated" (Hibbert 1987, p.89). They set out to please the audience with outstanding entertainment, as well as continue to teach. The plays presented the viewers with extremely strong visual images that would be remembered. Each play was often dominated by a powerful emblematic image (Tydeman 1986, p.177). In the play 'Everyman' the image of death hovering waiting to take him, while Everyman passionately declaring he is not ready, was not only powerful, but each member of the audience had the opportunity to see themselves as Everyman. With the desired image firmly entrenched in the audience's mind, the church had hopeful expectations that its doctrines would also be embraced.
When dramas were performed in the church, the place-and-scaffold presentations were the most common stages used. They were dressed with all the necessary scenery to tell the story that was being performed. The audience could view the presentations from three sides and sometimes from all sides. Once the theatre moved outside, different stages were utilized. The booth stage, which was a high thrust platform and a curtained area for the actors use, was used in the mystery and miracle plays. In Hrotsvitha's 'Dulcitius', a play with a variety of scenes, if staged outside could have been staged on many booths, each booth encompassing a different scene in the play. The audience would have moved from one booth to the next, viewing each scene. This type of staging was successful and the demand and attendance for outside theatre grew, eventually so did the complexity of the stages. They moved from booths to recreation grounds that enveloped a security system in their design, this was an effort to keep out the non-paying spectator (Harris 1992, p.107). The complex stages also demanded scenery to add to the overall impact.
The setting of the play and the scenery began as a simple backdrop to the productions. "The medieval stage did not lack scenery, but it was usually simple and inclined to be symbolic" (Goodman 1978, p.130). Then as theatre's popularity grew, more attention was focused on the play's setting. "Spectacle and popular forms were employed wherever possible, and the Hellmouth was usually a tour de force of mechanical wizardry and pyrotechnics" (Walsh 1993). When audiences could see the fruits of their demands, they became bold in their requests. "Audiences demanded horror as well as humour. There had to be bladders of blood, severed heads, lambs for sacrifices, fearsome masks, instruments of torture and full-throated cries of anguish" (Hibbert 199, p.92). As an entertainment factor, the added diversity was a confident move, one which continued to ensure drama's popularity.
Though in cases of the scenery lacking, the medieval actor relied more heavily on the costumes and the makeup for his characterization. Stockings, coats and wigs were all utilized. These costumes could range from rags to the most lavish of attire, all in an aim to pleasure the audience. The costumes of the character, however, were not always correct. Though since the medieval man knew little about historical accuracy, theatrical costumes could be realistic, symbolic or fantastic. Often all three styles would be used in one play (Goodman 1978, p.131). In the play 'Everyman', the part of death was generally portrayed in medieval times as a skeleton. It was an impressively visual costume. The aim of the pageant-master was to be visual, which meant the productions were often gaudy, and anachronistic. In the morality plays, symbolic costumes continued to be popular until the 16th century. The different costumes, such as the devil costumes using grotesque animal heads and bodies, were used to excite and shock the audiences. Using these novel and dramatic effects help to maintain the reputation and popularity of medieval theatre (Goodman 1978, p.132). While visually exhilarating, the dramas still continued to enlighten and school its spectators in biblical teachings.
Another tool employed for enriching the performance, was music. "The medieval drama grew out of, and was always closely associated with, music" (Goodman 1978, p.132). The chants performed by the priests in the first dramas, led to the singing and rich musical arrangements that followed in later plays. As the complexity of the dramas grew, expertise in different fields was sort, such as, hiring professional musicians (Hibbert 1987, p.89). Although there is no mention of music in the play 'Everyman', the enormous scope for music to enhance the production is evident, and music would surely have been used when it was performed in the Middle Ages. The voice of God could have been accompanied by a powerful musical backdrop, filling the atmosphere with an intense convincing mood. From the priests performing drama, and the guilds, it was evident music was seen as a vital aspect of any production. "Nor did these great guilds lack a large company of flutes and trumpets: for every guild is led by its own trumpeters" (Hibbert 1987, p.87). There was a definite reach for bigger and better in all aspects of developing theatre, including music.
On the stages, in the designed settings, accompanied by music, and clothed in costume, stood the actor. Once the church had withdrawn its clergy, and the actors were no longer clergymen and choirboys, the members of trade guilds happily took up the task of performing. "The players interpolated music and action and exploited comic possibilities in many vice and demon roles to create a popular dramatic form" (Walsh 1993). In 'Dulcitius', there is a measure of humour as well as a battle of wills between the characters. In scene four, Dulcitius the unsavoury Governor, is seen by Agape, Irena, and Chionia, kissing and hugging the pots and pans. He believed it was the girls he caressed. This scene shows humour and great potential for the actor to draw in the audience with laughter. This play, like others, distinguishes the character roles in black and white, the good character, the bad character and sometimes the comic. These black and white roles can be seen clearly in 'The Murder of Abel', Cain is in essence the bad character, although he is one the audience can love to hate, Abel is the good character and Garcio plays the comic. This was an effective combination.
With vivid and striking costumes, attention seeking scenery, and rich accompanying music, the medieval spectator was captivated and captured. The essence and moral instruction in the miracle, mystery, and morality plays were delivered with these elements of visual stimulation. The actors, originally priests then later guild members, enthralled and entertained their audiences, producing dramas that not only fed the crowds desire for amusement, but also portrayed fundamental church beliefs. It was a careful and skillful mixture of spiritual enlightenment and carnal pleasure, and the medieval person embraced the experience of theatre enthusiastically.
Gassner, J.(ed.) 1987, "The English Passion play: The First Murder", Medieval Tudor Drama, Applause Theatre Book Publishers, New York, pp. 44-46 and 57-71.
------------ 1987, "The classical heritage: Hrotsvitha's Dulcitius", Medieval Tudor Drama, Applause Theatre Book Publishers, New York, pp. 1-11.
Goodman, R. 1978, "Everyman", Drama on Stage, 2nd edn, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, pp. 120-56.
Harris, J.W. 1992, "Staging the cycles on scaffolds", ch 10 in Medieval Theatre on Context: An Introduction, Routledge, London & New York, pp.106-124.
Hibbert, C. 1987, The English: A Social History 1066-1945, Harper Collins, London.
Roy, I. 1993-1996, "Miracle, Mystery, and Morality Plays," Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia, CD Rom, Microsoft Corporation Sydney.
Tydeman, W. 1986, English Medieval Theatre, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London.
Walsh, D. 1993-1996, "Medieval Theatre," Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia, CD Rom, Microsoft Corporation Sydney.
